THE  ARTISTIC  CRAFTS 
[SERIES  OF  TECHNICAL 
[HANDBOOKS  EDITED 
IBY  W.  R.  LETHABY  1 


fornia 
lal 

y 


No.  I.    BOOKBINDING 


025,7    Cockerell 
Co        Bookbinding,  and  the 
care  of  books 


42* 


Date  Due 


THE  ARTISTIC  CRAFTS  SERIES 

OF    TECHNICAL    HANDBOOKS 

EDITED   BY  W.  R.  LETHABY 

BOOKBINDING 


THE   ARTISTIC    CRAFTS    SERIES   OF 
TECHNICAL   HANDBOOKS. 

Edited  by  W.   R.   LETHABY. 

'T'HE  series  will  appeal  to  handicraftsmen  in  the  industrial 
A  and  mechanic  arts.  It  consists  of  authoritative  state- 
ments by  experts  in  every  field  for  the  exercise  of  ingenuity, 
taste,  imagination — the  whole  sphere  of  the  so-called  "de- 
pendent arts." 


BOOKBINDING  AND    THE   CARE   OF 

BOOKS.  A  Handbook  for  Amateurs,  Bookbinders, 
and  Librarians.  By  DOUGLAS  COCKERELL.  With 
l^o  Illustrations  and  Diagrams  by  Noel  Rooke,  and 
8  collotype  reproductions  of  binding.  izmo. 
$1.25  net. 

SILVERWORK  AND  JEWELRY.  A  Text- 
Book  for  Students  and  Workers  in  Metal.  By  H. 
WILSON.  With  160  Diagrams  and  1 6  full-page 
Illustrations.  I2mo.  $1.40  net. 

WOOD    CARVING:      DESIGN    AND 

WORKMANSHIP.  By  GEORGE  JACK.  With 
Drawings  by  the  Author  and  other  Illustrations. 
$1.40  net. 

STAINED-GLASS  WORK.      A  Text-Book  for 

Students  and  Workers  in  Glass.  By  C.  W.  WHALL. 
With  Diagrams  by  two  of  his  Apprentices,  and 
other  Illustrations.  $1.50  net;  postage,  14  cents 
additional. 

D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  NEW  YORK. 


WHITE  PIGSKIN. — Basle,  1512. 


BOOKBINDING,  AND 
THE  CARE  OF  BOOKS 

A  HANDBOOK  FOR  AMATEURS 
BOOKBINDERS  &  LIBRARIANS 
BY  DOUGLAS  COCKERELL 

WITH 

DRAWINGS  BY  NOEL  ROOKE 
AND  OTHER  ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW   YORK 

D.   APPLETON   AND    COMPANY 
1906 


COPYRIGHT,  1901, 
BY  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 

All  rights  reserved 


oa.5.7 

Co 


EDITOR'S    PREFACE 

IN    issuing    this  volume    of    a    series  of   Editor's 
Handbooks    on    the    Artistic    Crafts,    it    Preface 
will  be  well  to  state  what  are  our  general 
aims. 

In  the  first  place,  we  wish  to  provide 
trustworthy  text-books  of  workshop  prac- 
tice, from  the  points  of  view  of  experts 
who  have  critically  examined  the  methods 
current  in  the  shops,  and  putting  aside 
vain  survivals,  are  prepared  to  say  what 
is  good  workmanship,  and  to  set  up  a 
standard  of  quality  in  the  crafts  which 
are  more  especially  associated  with  de- 
sign. Secondly,  in  doing  this,  we  hope 
to  treat  design  itself  as  an  essential  part 
of  good  workmanship.  During  the  last 
century  most  of  the  arts,  save  painting 

7 


2064684 


Editor's  and  sculpture  of  an  academic  kind,  were 
Preface  \{^\Q  considered,  and  there  was  a  tendency 
to  look  on  "  design "  as  a  mere  matter 
of  appearance.  Such  "  ornamentation  "  as 
there  was  was  usually  obtained  by  follow- 
ing in  a  mechanical  way  a  drawing  pro- 
vided by  an  artist  who  often  knew  little 
of  the  technical  processes  involved  in 
production.  With  the  critical  attention 
given  to  the  crafts  by  Ruskin  and  Morris, 
it  came  to  be  seen  that  it  was  impossible 
to  detach  design  from  craft  in  this 
way,  and  that,  in  the  widest  sense,  true 
design  is  an  inseparable  element  of  good 
quality,  involving  as  it  does  the  selection 
of  good  and  suitable  material,  contriv- 
ance for  special  purpose,  expert  work- 
manship, proper  finish  and  so  on,  far 
more  than  mere  ornament,  and  indeed, 
that  ornamentation  itself  was  rather  an 
exuberance  of  fine  workmanship  than  a 
matter  of  merely  abstract  lines.  Work- 
manship when  separated  by  too  wide  a  gulf 
from  fresh  thought — that  is,  from  design — 
inevitably  decays,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
8 


ornamentation,  divorced  from  workman-   Editor's 
ship,   is    necessarily   unreal,   and    quickly   Pre*ace 
falls  into  affectation.      Proper  ornamenta- 
tion  may  be   defined  as   a   language  ad- 
dressed to  the  eye ;  it  is  pleasant  thought 
expressed  in  the  speech  of  the  tool. 

In  the  third  place,  we  would  have  this 
series  put  artistic  craftsmanship  before 
people  as  furnishing  reasonable  occupa- 
tion for  those  who  would  gain  a  liveli- 
hood. Although  within  the  bounds  of 
academic  art,  the  competition,  of  its  kind, 
is  so  acute  that  only  a  very  few  per  cent, 
can  fairly  hope  to  succeed  as  painters  and 
sculptors ;  yet,  as  artistic  craftsmen,  there 
is  every  probability  that  nearly  every 
one  who  would  pass  through  a  sufficient 
period  of  apprenticeship  to  workman- 
ship and  design  would  reach  a  measure 
of  success. 

In  the  blending  of  handwork  and 
thought  in  such  arts  as  we  propose  to 
deal  with,  happy  careers  may  be  found 
as  far  removed  from  the  dreary  routine 
of  hack  labour,  as  from  the  terrible  un- 

9 


Editor's   certainty  of  academic  art.     It  is  desirable 
Preface     jn  every  way  tnat  men  of  gOO(j  education 

should  be  brought  back  into  the  produc- 
tive crafts :  there  are  more  than  enough 
of  us  "  in  the  city,"  and  it  is  probable 
that  more  consideration  will  be  given  in 
this  century  than  in  the  last  to  Design 
and  Workmanship. 

W.   R.   LETHABY. 


10 


AUTHOR'S    NOTE 

IT    is    hoped    that    this    book   will    help   Author's 
bookbinders  and  librarians  to  select  sound     Note 
methods  of  binding  books. 

It  is  intended  to  supplement  and  not 
to  supplant  workshop  training  for  book- 
binders. No  one  can  become  a  skilled 
workman  by  reading  text-books,  but  to 
a  man  who  has  acquired  skill  and  practical 
experience,  a  text-book,  giving  perhaps 
different  methods  from  those  to  which 
he  has  been  accustomed,  may  be  helpful. 

My  thanks  are  due  to  many  friends, 
including  the  workmen  in  my  work- 
shop, for  useful  suggestions  and  other 
help,  and  to  the  Society  of  Arts  for  per- 
mission to  quote  from  the  report  of  their 
Special  Committee  on  leather  for  book- 
binding. 

ii 


Author's  I  should  also  like  to  express  my  in- 
Note  debtedness  to  my  master,  Mr.  T.  J. 
Cobden-Sanderson,  for  it  was  in  his  work- 
shop that  I  learned  my  craft,  and  anything 
that  may  be  of  value  in  this  book  is  due 
to  his  influence. 

D.  C. 

November  1901. 


12 


CONTENTS  Contents 

PART   I 
BINDING 

PAGE 

Editor's  Preface  .....  7 

Author's  Note  .  .  .  .  .  .11 

CHAPTER   I 

Introduction       .  .  .          .  .  .17 

CHAPTER   II 

Entering — Books  in  Sheets — Folding — Collating 
— Pulling  to  Pieces — Refolding — Knocking 
out  Joints  .  .  .  .  .  -33 

CHAPTER   III 

Guarding — Throwing  Out — Paring  Paper — 
Soaking  off  India  Proofs — Mounting  very 
Thin  Paper — Splitting  Paper — Inlaying — 
Flattening  Vellum  .  .  .  -53 

CHAPTER   IV 
Sizing — Washing — Mending  .          .          .67 


Contents  CHAPTER    V 


PAGE 


End  Papers — Leather  Joints — Pressing     .          .        80 

CHAPTER    VI 

Trimming  Edges  before  Sewing — Edge  Gilding       92 

CHAPTER    VII 

Making  up — Sewing — Materials  for  Sewing      .        98 

CHAPTER   VIII 

Fraying  out  Slips — Glueing  up — Rounding  and 

Backing     .          .          .          .          .          .114 

CHAPTER   IX 

Cutting    and    Attaching    Boards — Cleaning   off 

Back — Pressing  .          .          ;'          .          .124 

CHAPTER    X 
Cutting  in  Boards — Gilding  and  Colouring  Edges      1 39 

CHAPTER   XI 

Headbanding     .         „          .          .          .          .147 

CHAPTER   XII 

Preparing  for  Covering — Paring  Leather — Cov- 
ering— Mitring  Corners — Filling-in  Boards      152 

H 


CHAPTER    XIII  pAGE    contents 

Library  Binding — Binding  very  Thin  Books — 
Scrap- Books — Binding  in  Vellum — Books 
covered  with  Embroidery  .  .  .173 

CHAPTER   XIV 

Decoration  —  Tools  —  Finishing  —  Tooling    on 

Vellum — Inlaying  on  Leather  .          .      188 

CHAPTER   XV 

Lettering — Blind  Tooling — Heraldic  Ornament     215 

CHAPTER    XVI 

Designing  for  Gold-Tooled  Decoration    .          .      230 

CHAPTER    XVII 

Pasting  down  End  Papers — Opening  Books       .      254 

CHAPTER    XVIII 

Clasps  and  Ties — Metal  on  Bindings       .          .      259 

CHAPTER   XIX 
Leather    .......      263 


CHAPTER   XX 

Paper — Pastes — Glue 


Contents  PART    II 

CARE    OF  BOOKS    WHEN  BOUND 
CHAPTER    XXI 

PAGE 

Injurious  Influences  to  which  Books  are  Subjected     291 

CHAPTER    XXII 
To  Preserve  Old  Bindings — Re-backing  .          .      302 

SPECIFICATIONS  .          .          .          .          .  307 

GLOSSARY  .          .          .          .          .  3 1 3 

REPRODUCTIONS  OF  BINDINGS  (Eight  Collotypes)      319 
INDEX      .         .          .         .         .         .         -337 


16 


PART  I 

BINDING 
+2.7 

CHAPTER   I 

INTRODUCTION 

THE  reasons  for  binding  the  leaves  of  a  Intro- 
book  are  to  keep  them  together  in  their  ducrion 
proper  order,  and  to  protect  them.  That 
bindings  can  be  made,  that  will  adequately 
protect  books,  can  be  seen  from  the  large 
number  of  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  century 
bindings  now  existing  on  books  still  in 
excellent  condition.  That  bindings  are 
made,  that  fail  to  protect  books,  may  be 
seen  by  visiting  any  large  library,  when 
it  will  be  found  that  many  bindings  have 
their  boards  loose  and  the  leather  crum- 
bling to  dust.  Nearly  all  librarians  com- 
plain, that  they  have  to  be  continually 
2  17 


Intro-  rebinding  books,  and  this  not  after  four 
duction  hundred,  but  after  only  five  or  ten  years. 

It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  ninety 
per  cent,  of  the  books  bound  in  leather 
during  the  last  thirty  years  will  need  re- 
binding  during  the  next  thirty.  The 
immense  expense  involved  must  be  a  very 
serious  drag  on  the  usefulness  of  libra- 
ries ;  and  as  rebinding  is  always  to  some 
extent  damaging  to  the  leaves  of  a  book,  it 
is  not  only  on  account  of  the  expense  that 
the  necessity  for  it  is  to  be  regretted. 

The  reasons  that  have  led  to  the  pro- 
duction in  modern  times  of  bindings  that 
fail  to  last  for  a  reasonable  time,  are  two- 
fold. The  materials  are  badly  selected  or 
prepared,  and  the  method  of  binding  is 
faulty.  Another  factor  in  the  decay  of 
bindings,  both  old  and  new,  is  the  bad 
conditions  under  which  they  are  often 
kept. 

The  object  of  this  text-book  is  to 
describe  the  best  methods  of  bookbinding, 
and  of  keeping  books  when  bound,  taking 
into  account  the  present-day  conditions. 
No  attempt  has  been  made  to  describe  all 
possible  methods,  but  only  such  as  appear 
to  have  answered  best  on  old  books.  The 
methods  described  are  for  binding  that 

18 


can  be  done  by  hand  with  the  aid  of  Intro- 
simple  appliances.  Large  editions  of  duction 
books  are  now  bound,  or  rather  cased, 
at  an  almost  incredible  speed  by  the  aid 
of  machinery,  but  all  work  that  needs 
personal  care  and  thought  on  each  book, 
is  still  done,  and  probably  always  will  be 
done,  by  hand.  Elaborate  machinery  can 
only  be  economically  employed  when  very 
large  numbers  of  books  have  to  be  turned 
out  exactly  alike. 

The  ordinary  cloth  "  binding "  of  the 
trade,  is  better  described  as  casing.  The 
methods  being  different,  it  is  convenient 
to  distinguish  between  casing  and  binding. 
In  binding,  the  slips  are  firmly  attached 
to  the  boards  before  covering ;  in  casing, 
the  boards  are  covered  separately,  and 
afterwards  glued  on  to  the  book.  Very 
great  efforts  have  been  made  in  the  deco- 
ration of  cloth  covers,  and  it  is  a  pity 
that  the  methods  of  construction  have 
not  been  equally  considered.  If  cloth  cases 
are  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  temporary 
binding,  then  it  seems  a  pity  to  waste  so 
much  trouble  on  their  decoration ;  and 
if  they  are  to  be  looked  upon  as  per- 
manent binding,  it  is  a  pity  the  construc- 
tion is  not  better. 

19 


Intro-  For  books  of  only  temporary  interest, 

duction  the  usual  cloth  cases  answer  well  enough ; 
but  for  books  expected  to  have  permanent 
value,  some  change  is  desirable. 

Valuable  books  should  either  be  issued 
in  bindings  that  are  obviously  temporary, 
or  else  in  bindings  that  are  strong  enough 
to  be  considered  permanent.  The  usual 
cloth  case  fails  as  a  temporary  binding, 
because  the  methods  employed  result  in 
serious  damage  to  the  sections  of  the  book, 
often  unfitting  them  for  rebinding,  and  it 
fails  as  a  permanent  binding  on  account  of 
the  absence  of  sound  construction. 

In  a  temporary  publisher's  binding, 
nothing  should  be  done  to  the  sections 
of  a  book  that  would  injure  them.  Plates 
should  be  guarded,  the  sewing  should  be 
on  tapes,  without  splitting  the  head  and 
tail,  or  "  sawing  in "  the  backs,  of  the 
sections ;  the  backs  should  be  glued  up 
square  without  backing.  The  case  may 
be  attached,  as  is  now  usual.  For  a  per- 
manent publisher's  binding,  something 
like  that  recommended  for  libraries  (page 
173)  is  suggested,  with  either  leather  or 
cloth  on  the  back. 

At  the  end  of  the  book  four  specifica- 
tions are  given  (page  307).  The  first  is 

20 


suggested  for  binding  books  of  special  Intro- 
interest  or  value,  where  no  restriction  as  to  duction 
price  is  made.  A  binding  under  this  speci- 
fication may  be  decorated  to  any  extent 
that  the  nature  of  the  book  justifies.  The 
second  is  for  good  binding,  for  books 
of  reference  and  other  heavy  books  that 
may  have  a  great  deal  of  wear.  All  the 
features  of  the  first  that  make  for  the 
strength  of  the  binding  are  retained,  while 
those  less  essential,  that  only  add  to  the 
appearance,  are  omitted.  Although  the 
binding  under  this  specification  would  be 
much  cheaper  than  that  carried  out  under 
the  first,  it  would  still  be  too  expensive 
for  the  majority  of  books  in  most  libra- 
ries ;  and  as  it  would  seem  to  be  impos- 
sible to  further  modify  this  form  of 
binding,  without  materially  reducing  its 
strength,  for  cheaper  work,  a  somewhat 
different  system  is  recommended.  The 
third  specification  is  recommended  for 
the  binding  of  the  general  run  of  small 
books  in  most  libraries.  The  fourth  is 
a  modification  of  this  for  pamphlets  and 
other  books  of  little  value,  that  need  to 
be  kept  together  tidily  for  occasional 
reference. 

Thanks,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  work 

21 


Intro-  of  Mr.  Cobden-Sanderson,  there  is  in  Eng- 
duction  land  the  germ  of  a  sound  tradition  for  the 
best  binding.  The  Report  of  the  Com- 
mittee appointed  by  the  Society  of  Arts 
to  investigate  the  cause  of  the  decay  of 
modern  leather  bindings,  should  tend  to 
establish  a  sound  tradition  for  cheaper 
work.  The  third  specification  at  the  end 
of  this  book  is  practically  the  same  as  that 
given  in  their  Report,  and  was  arrived  at 
by  selection,  after  many  libraries  had  been 
examined,  and  many  forms  of  binding 
compared. 

Up  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury the  traditional  methods  of  binding 
books  had  altered  very  little  during  three 
hundred  years.  Books  were  generally 
sewn  round  five  cords,  the  ends  of  all  of 
these  laced  into  the  boards,  and  the  leather 
attached  directly  to  the  back.  At  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century  it  became  custo- 
mary to  pare  down  leather  until  it  was  as 
thin  as  paper,  and  soon  afterwards  the  use 
of  hollow  backs  and  false  bands  became 
general,  and  these  two  things  together 
mark  the  beginning  of  the  modern  degra- 
dation of  binding,  so  far  as  its  utility  as  a 
protection  is  concerned. 

The  Society  of  Arts  Committee  report 

22 


that  the  bookbinders  must  share  with  the      Intro- 
leather   manufacturers   and  librarians   the      ducrion 
blame  for  the  premature  decay  of  modern 
bindings,  because — 

"  i.  Books  are  sewn  on  too  few,  and 
too  thin  cords,  and  the  slips  are  pared 
down  unduly  (for  the  sake  of  neatness), 
and  are  not  in  all  cases  firmly  laced  into 
the  boards.  This  renders  the  attach- 
ment of  the  boards  to  the  book  almost 
entirely  dependent  on  the  strength  of  the 
leather. 

"  2.  The  use  of  hollow  backs  throws  all 
the  strain  of  opening  and  shutting  on  the 
joints,  and  renders  the  back  liable  to  come 
right  off  if  the  book  is  much  used. 

"3.  The  leather  of  the  back  is  apt  to 
become  torn  through  the  use  of  insuffi- 
ciently strong  headbands,  which  are  unable 
to  stand  the  strain  of  the  book  being  taken 
from  the  shelf. 

"4.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  use  far 
too  thin  leather ;  especially  to  use  large 
thick  skins  very  much  pared  down  for 
small  books. 

"  5.  The  leather  is  often  made  very 
wet  and  stretched  a  great  deal  in  covering, 
with  the  result  that  on  drying  it  is  further 
strained,  almost  to  breaking  point,  by  con- 

23 


Intro-  traction,  leaving  a  very  small  margin  of 
duction  strength  to  meet  the  accidents  of  use." 

The  history  of  the  general  introduction 
of  hollow  backs  is  probably  somewhat 
as  follows :  Leather  was  doubtless  first 
chosen  for  covering  the  backs  of  books 
because  of  its  toughness  and  flexibility ; 
because,  while  protecting  the  back,  it 
would  bend  when  the  book  was  opened 
and  allow  the  back  to  "  throw  up  "  (see 
fig.  i,  A).  When  gold  tooling  became 
common,  and  the  backs  of  books  were  ela- 
borately decorated,  it  was  found  that  the 
creasing  of  the  leather  injured  the  bright- 
ness of  the  gold  and  caused  it  to  crack. 
To  avoid  this  the  binders  lined  up  the 
back  until  it  was  as  stiff  as  a  block  of 
wood.  The  back  would  then  not  "  throw 
up  "  as  the  book  was  opened,  the  leather 
would  not  be  creased,  and  the  gold  would 
remain  uninjured  (see  fig.  i,  B).  This  was 
all  very  well  for  the  gold,  but  a  book  so 
treated  does  not  open  fully,  and  indeed, 
if  the  paper  is  stiff,  can  hardly  be  got  to 
open  at  all.  To  overcome  both  difficul- 
ties the  hollow  back  was  introduced,  and 
as  projecting  bands  would  have  been 
in  the  way,  the  sewing  cord  was  sunk  in 
saw  cuts  made  across  the  back  of  the  book. 

24 


The  use  of  hollow  backs  was  a  very      Intro- 
ingenious   way   out   of  the    difficulty,   as     duction 
with  them   the  backs  could  be  made  to 
"  throw  up,"   and   at   the  same  time  the 


A 


leather  was  not  disturbed  (see  fig.  i,  C). 
The  method  of  "  sawing  in  "  bands  was 
known  for  a  long  time  before  the  general 


Intro-  use  of  hollow  backs.  It  has  been  used  to 
duction  avoid  the  raised  bands  on  books  covered 
with  embroidered  material. 

If  a  book  is  sewn  on  tapes,  and  the  back 
lined  with  leather,  there  is  no  serious  ob- 
jection to  a  carefully-made  hollow  back 
without  bands.  The  vellum  binders  use 
hollow  backs  made  in  this  way  for  great 
account  books  that  stand  an  immense 
amount  of  wear.  They  make  the  "  hollow  " 
very  stiff,  so  that  it  acts  as  a  spring  to 
throw  the  back  up. 

But  although,  if  carefully  done,  satis- 
factory bindings  may  be  made  with  hollow 
backs,  their  use  has  resulted  in  the  pro- 
duction of  worthless  bindings  with  little 
strength,  and  yet  with  the  appearance  of 
better  work. 

The  public  having  been  accustomed  to 
raised  bands  on  the  backs  of  books,  and 
the  real  bands  being  sunk  in  the  back,  the 
binders  put  false  ones  over  the  "  hollow." 
To  save  money  or  trouble,  the  bands  being 
out  of  sight,  the  book  would  be  sewn  on 
only  three  or  sometimes  only  two  cords, 
the  usual  five  false  ones  still  showing  at 
the  back.  Often  only  two  out  of  the 
three  bands  would  be  laced  into  the  board, 
and  sometimes  the  slips  would  not  be  laced 

26 


in  at  all.     Again,  false  headbands  worked      Intro- 
by  the  yard  by  machinery  would  be  stuck     duction 
on  at  the  head  and  tail,  and  a  "hollow" 
made  with  brown  paper.    Then  leather  so 
thin  as  to  have  but  little  strength,  but  used 
because  it  is  easy  to  work  and  needs  no 
paring,  would    be   stuck   on.     The  back 
would  often  be  full  gilt  and  lettered,  and 
the  sides  sprinkled  or  marbled,  thus  further 
damaging  the  leather. 

In  every  large  library  hundreds  of  books 
bound  somewhat  on  these  lines  may  be 
seen.  When  they  are  received  from  the 
binder  they  have  the  appearance  of  being 
well  bound,  they  look  smart  on  the  shelf^ 
but  in  a  few  years,  whether  they  are  used 
or  not,  the  leather  will  have  perished  and 
the  boards  become  detached,  and  they  will 
have  to  be  rebound. 

As  long  as  librarians  expect  the  appear- 
ance of  a  guinea  binding  for  two  or  three 
shillings,  such  shams  will  be  produced. 
The  librarian  generally  gets  his  money's 
worth,  for  it  would  be  impossible  for  the 
binder  to  do  better  work  at  the  price 
usually  paid  without  materially  altering 
the  appearance  of  the  binding.  The 
polished  calf  and  imitation  crushed  mo- 
rocco must  go,  and  in  its  place  a  rougher, 

27 


Intro-  thicker  leather  must  be  employed.  The 
duction  full-gilt  backs  must  go,  the  coloured  letter- 
ing panel  must  go,  the  hollow  backs  must 
go,  but  in  the  place  of  these  we  may  have 
the  books  sewn  on  tapes  with  the  ends 
securely  fastened  into  split  boards,  and 
the  thick  leather  attached  directly  to  the 
backs  of  the  sections.  (See  specification 
III.  page  307.) 

Such  a  binding  would  look  well  and  not 
be  more  expensive  than  the  usual  library 
binding.  It  should  allow  the  book  to 
open  flat,  and  if  the  materials  are  well 
selected,  be  very  durable,  and  specially 
strong  in  the  joints,  the  weak  place  in 
most  bindings.  The  lettering  on  the  back 
may  be  damaged  in  time  if  the  book  is 
much  used,  but  if  so  it  can  easily  be 
renewed  at  a  fraction  of  the  cost  of  re- 
binding,  and  without  injury  to  the  book. 

While  the  majority  of  books  in  most 
libraries  must  be  bound  at  a  small  cost, 
at  most  not  exceeding  a  few  shillings  a 
volume,  there  is  a  large  demand  for  good 
plain  bindings,  and  a  limited,  but  grow- 
ing, demand  for  more  or  less  decorated 
bindings  for  special  books. 

Any  decoration  but  the  simplest  should 
be  restricted  to  books  bound  as  well  as 

28 


the  binder  can  do  them.     The  presence      Intro- 
of  decoration  should  be  evidence  that  the     duction 
binder,  after  doing  his  best  with  the  "  for- 
warding," has  had  time  in  which  to  try 
to  make  his  work  a  beautiful,  as  well  as 
a  senviceable,  production. 

Many  books,  although  well  bound,  are 
better  left  plain,  or  with  only  a  little 
decoration.  But  occasionally  there  are 
books  that  the  binder  can  decorate  as 
lavishly  as  he  is  able.  As  an  instance  of 
bindings  that  cannot  be  over-decorated, 
those  books  which  are  used  in  important 
ceremonies,  such  as  Altar  Books,  may  be 
mentioned.  Such  books  may  be  decorated 
with  gold  and  colour  until  they  seem  to 
be  covered  in  a  golden  material.  They 
will  be  but  spots  of  gorgeousness  in  a 
great  church  or  cathedral,  and  they  can- 
not be  said  to  be  over-decorated  as  long 
as  the  decoration  is  good. 

So,  occasionally  some  one  may  have  a 
book  to  which  he  is  for  some  reason 
greatly  attached,  and  wishing  to  enshrine 
it,  give  the  binder  a  free  hand  to  do 
his  best  with  it.  The  binder  may  wish 
to  make  a  delicate  pattern  with  nicely- 
balanced  spots  of  ornament,  leaving  the 
leather  for  the  most  part  bare,  or  he  may 

29 


Intro-  wish  to  cover  the  outside  with  some  close 
duction  gold-tooled  pattern,  giving  a  richness  of 
texture  hardly  to  be  got  by  other  means. 
If  he  decides  on  the  latter,  many  people 
will  say  that  the  cover  is  over-decorated. 
But  as  a  book  cover  can  never  be  seen 
absolutely  alone,  it  should  not  be  judged 
as  an  isolated  thing  covered  with  orna- 
ment without  relief,  but  as  a  spot  of 
brightness  and  interest  among  its  sur- 
roundings. If  a  room  and  everything  in 
it  is  covered  with  elaborate  pattern,  then 
anything  with  a  plain  surface  would  be 
welcome  as  a  relief;  but  in  a  room  which 
is  reasonably  free  from  ornament,  a  spot 
of  rich  decoration  should  be  welcome. 

It  is  not  contended  that  the  only,  or 
necessarily  the  best,  method  of  decorating 
book  covers  is  by  elaborate  all-over  gold- 
tooled  pattern ;  but  it  is  contended  that 
this  is  a  legitimate  method  of  decoration 
for  exceptional  books,  and  that  by  its  use 
it  is  possible  to  get  a  beautiful  effect  well 
worth  the  trouble  and  expense  involved. 

Good  leather  has  a  beautiful  surface, 
and  may  sometimes  be  got  of  a  fine  colour. 
The  binder  may  often  wish  to  show  this 
surface  and  colour,  and  to  restrict  his 
decoration  to  small  portions  of  the  cover, 

30 


and  this  quite  rightly,  he  aiming  at,  and      Intro- 
getting,  a  totally  different  effect  than  that     duction 
got  by  all-over  patterns.     Both  methods 
are  right  if  well  done,  and  both  methods 
can  equally  be  vulgarised  if  badly  done. 

A  much  debated  question  is,  how  far 
the  decoration  of  a  binding  should  be 
influenced  by  the  contents  of  the  book  ? 
A  certain  appropriateness  there  should  be, 
but  as  a  general  thing,  if  the  binder  aims 
at  making  the  cover  beautiful,  that  is  the 
best  he  can  do.  The  hints  given  for 
designing  are  not  intended  to  stop  the 
development  of  the  student's  own  ideas, 
but  only  to  encourage  their  development 
on  right  lines. 

There  should  be  a  certain  similarity  of 
treatment  between  the  general  get-up  of 
a  book  and  its  binding.  It  is  a  great  pity 
that  printers  and  binders  have  drifted  so 
far  apart ;  they  are,  or  should  be,  working 
for  one  end,  the  production  of  a  book, 
and  some  unity  of  aim  should  be  evident 
in  the  work  of  the  two. 

The  binding  of  manuscripts  and  early 
printed  books  should  be  strong  and  simple. 
It  should  be  as  strong  and  durable  as  the 
original  old  bindings,  and,  like  them,  last 
with  reasonable  care  for  four  hundred  years 

31 


Intro-      or  more.     To  this  end  the  old  bindings, 

duction     with    their    stout    sewing    cord,    wooden 

boards,  and  clasps,  may  be  taken  as  models. 

The  question  is  constantly  asked,  espe- 
cially by  women,  if  a  living  can  be  made 
by  setting  up  as  bookbinders.  Cheap 
binding  can  most  economically  be  done 
in  large  workshops,  but  probably  the  best 
bindings  can  be  done  more  satisfactorily 
by  binders  working  alone,  or  in  very  small 
workshops. 

If  any  one  intends  to  set  up  as  a  book- 
binder, doing  all  the  work  without  help, 
it  is  necessary  to  charge  very  high  prices 
to  get  any  adequate  return  after  the 
working  expenses  have  been  paid.  In 
order  to  get  high  prices,  the  standard  of 
work  must  be  very  high  ;'  and  in  order  to 
attain  a  high  enough  standard  of  work, 
a  very  thorough  training  is  necessary.  It 
is  desirable  that  any  one  hoping  to  make 
money  at  the  craft  should  have  at  least  a 
year's  training  in  a  workshop  where  good 
work  is  done,  and  after  that,  some  time 
will  be  spent  before  quite  satisfactory  work 
can  be  turned  out  rapidly  enough  to  pay, 
supposing  that  orders  can  be  obtained  or 
the  books  bound  can  be  sold. 

There  are  some  successful  binders  who 


have  had  less  than  a  year's  training,  but 
they  are  exceptional.  Those  who  have 
not  been  accustomed  to  manual  work  have 
usually,  in  addition  to  the  necessary  skill, 
to  acquire  the  habit  of  continuous  work. 
Bookbinding  seems  to  offer  an  opening 
for  well-educated  youths  who  are  willing 
to  serve  an  apprenticeship  in  a  good  shop, 
and  who  have  some  small  amount  of  capital 
at  their  command. 

In  addition  to  the  production  of  de- 
corated bindings,  there  is  much  to  be  done 
by  specialising  in  certain  kinds  of  work 
requiring  special  knowledge.  Repairing 
and  binding  early  printed  books  and 
manuscripts,  or  the  restoration  of  Parish 
Registers  and  Accounts,  may  be  suggested. 


Intro- 
duction 


CHAPTER    II 

Entering — Books  in  Sheets — Folding — Collating — 
Pulling  to  Pieces — Refolding — Knocking  out 
Joints 

ENTERING 

ON  receiving  a  book  for  binding,  its  title    Entering 
should   be    entered    in    a  book   kept  for 
that  purpose,  with  the  date  of  entry,  and 

3  33 


Entering  customer's  name  and  address,  and  any  in- 
structions he  may  have  given,  written  out 
in  full  underneath,  leaving  room  below  to 
enter  the  time  taken  on  the  various  opera- 
tions and  cost  of  the  materials  used.  It 
is  well  to  number  the  entry,  and  to  give 
a  corresponding  number  to  the  book.  It 
should  be  at  once  collated,  and  any  special 
features  noted,  such  as  pages  that  need 
washing  or  mending.  If  the  book  should 
prove  to  be  imperfect,  or  to  have  any 
serious  defect,  the  owner  should  be  com- 
municated with,  before  it  is  pulled  to 
pieces.  This  is  very  important,  as  imper- 
fect books  that  have  been  "  pulled  "  are 
not  returnable  to  the  bookseller.  Should 
defects  only  be  discovered  after  the  book 
has  been  taken  to  pieces,  the  bookbinder  is 
liable  to  be  blamed  for  the  loss  of  any 
missing  leaves. 


BOOKS    IN    SHEETS 

Books  in         The  sheets  of  a  newly  printed  book  are 
Sheets      arranged   in   piles   in   the  printer's  ware- 
house, each  pile  being  made  up  of  repeti- 
tions of  the  same  sheet  or  "  signature." 
Plates  or  maps  are  in  piles  by  themselves. 
34 


To  make  a  complete  book  one  sheet  is  Books  in 
gathered  from  each  pile,  beginning  at  the  Sheets 
last  sheet  and  working  backwards  to  signa- 
ture A.  When  a  book  is  ordered  from  a 
publisher  in  sheets,  it  is  such  a  "  gathered  " 
copy  that  the  binder  receives.  Some  books 
are  printed  "  double,"  that  is,  the  type  is 
set  up  twice,  two  copies  are  printed  at  once 
at  different  ends  of  a  sheet  of  paper,  and 
the  sheets  have  to  be  divided  down  the 
middle  before  the  copies  can  be  separated. 
Sometimes  the  title  and  introduction,  or 
perhaps  only  the  last  sheet,  will  be  printed 
in  this  way.  Publishers  usually  decline  to 
supply  in  sheets  fewer  than  two  copies  of 
such  double-printed  books. 

If  a  book  is  received  unfolded,  it  is 
generally  advisable  at  once  to  fold  up  the 
sheets  and  put  them  in  their  proper  order, 
with  half-title,  title,  introduction,  &c.,  and, 
if  there  are  plates,  to  compare  them  with 
the  printed  list. 

Should  there  be  in  a  recently  published 
book  defects  of  any  kind,  such  as  spiled 
sheets,  the  publisher  will  usually  replace 
them  on  application,  although  they  some- 
times take  a  long  time  to  do  so.  Such 
sheets  are  called  "  imperfections,"  and  the 
printers  usually  keep  a  number  of"  overs  " 

35 


Books  in     in  order  to  make  good  such  imperfections 
Sheets      as  may  occur. 

FOLDING 

Folding  Books  received  in  sheets  must  be  folded. 
Folding  requires  care,  or  the  margins  of 
different  leaves  will  be  unequal,  and  the 
lines  of  printing  not  at  right  angles  to 
the  back. 

Books  of  various  sizes  are  known  as 
"folio,"  "quarto,"  "octavo,"  "duode- 
cimo," &c.  These  names  signify  the 
number  of  folds,  and  consequently  the 
number  of  leaves  the  paper  has  been  folded 
into.  Thus,  a  folio  is  made  up  of  sheets 
of  paper  folded  once  down  the  centre, 
forming  two  leaves  and  four  pages.  The 
sheets  of  a  quarto  have  a  second  fold, 
making  four  leaves  and  eight  pages,  and 
in  an  octavo  the  sheet  has  a  third  fold, 
forming  eight  leaves  and  sixteen  pages 
(see  fig.  2),  and  so  on.  Each  sheet  of 
paper  when  folded  constitutes  a  section, 
except  in  the  case  of  folios,  where  it  is 
usual  to  make  up  the  sections  by  inserting 
two  or  more  sheets,  one  within  the  other. 

Paper  is  made  in  several  named  sizes, 
such  as  "  imperial,"  "  royal,"  "  demy," 

36 


"crown,"  "foolscap,"  &c.  (see  p.  283), 
so  that  the  terms  "  imperial  folio "  or 
"  crown  octavo  "  imply  that  a  sheet  of  a 
definite  size  has  been  folded  a  definite 
number  of  times. 


Folio 


FIG.   2. 

Besides  the  traditional  sizes,  paper  is  now 
made  of  almost  any  length  and  width,  re- 
sulting in  books  of  odd  shape,  and  the 
names  folio,  quarto,  &c.,  are  rather  losing 
their  true  meaning,  and  are  often  used 
loosely  to  signify  pages  of  certain  sizes, 
irrespective  of  the  number  that  go  to  a 
sheet. 

37 


Folding 


Folding  On  -receipt,  for  instance,  of  an  octavo 
book  for  folding,  the  pile  of  sheets  is  laid 
flat  on  the  table,  and  collated  by  the  letter 
or  signature  of  each  sheet.  The  first  sheet 
of  the  book  proper  will  probably  be  signa- 
ture B,  as  signature  A  usually  consists  of 
the  half-title,  title,  introduction,  &c.,  and 
often  has  to  be  folded  up  rather  differently. 

The  "  outer  "  sides,  known  by  the  signa- 
ture letters  B,  C,  D,  &c.,  should  be  down- 
wards, and  the  inner  sides  facing  upwards 
with  the  second  signatures,  if  there  are  any, 
62,  C2,  Da,  &c.,  at  the  right-hand  bottom 
corner. 

The  pages  of  an  octave  book,  com- 
mencing at  page  i,  are  shown  at  fig.  3. 
A  folder  is  taken  in  the  right  hand,  and 
held  at  trie  bottom  of  the  sheet  at  about 
the  centre,  and  the  sheet  taken  by  the  left 
hand  at  the  top  right-hand  corner  and  bent 
over  until  pages  3  and  6  come  exactly  over 
pages  2  and  7  ;  and  when  it  is  seen  that 
the  headlines  and  figures  exactly  match,  the 
paper,  while  being  held  in  that  position, 
is  creased  down  the  centre  with  the  folder, 
and  the  fold  cut  up  a  little  more  than  half- 
way. Pages  4,  13,  5,  12  will  now  be 
uppermost ;  pages  12  and  5  are  now  folded 
over  to  exactly  match  pages  13  and  4,  and 

38 


Folding 


9 


4 

13 

16 

1 

B 

Outer  side:  Dotunw«wcb. 


L 

01 

It 

9 

2 

15 

14 

3 
B2 

Inner  side :  Upwands. 
AN  OCTAVO  SHEET. 

FIG.    3. 


Folding  the  fold  creased  and  cut  up  a  little  more 
than  half-way,  as  before.  Pages  8  and  9 
will  now  be  uppermost,  and  will  merely 
require  folding  together  to  make  the  pages 
of  the  section  follow  in  their  proper  order. 
If  the  folding  has  been  done  carefully, 
and  the  "register"  of  the  printing  is 
good,  the  headlines  should  be  exactly  even 
throughout. 

The  object  of  cutting  past  the  centre  at 
each  fold  is  to  avoid  the  unsightly  creas- 
ing that  results  from  folding  two  or  more 
thicknesses  of  paper  when  joined  at  the 
top  edge. 

A  "  duodecimo "  sheet  has  the  pages 
arranged  as  at  fig.  4. 

The"  inset"  pages,  10,  15,  14,  i  i,must 

be   cut   off,   and   the   rest   of  the  section 

*  folded  as  for  an  octavo  sheet.     The  inset 

is  folded  separately  and  inserted  into  the 

centre  of  the  octavo  portion. 

Other  sizes  are  folded  in  much  the  same 
way,  and  the  principle  of  folding  one  sheet 
having  been  mastered,  no  difficulty  will  be 
found  in  folding  any  other. 

Plates  often  require  trimming,  and  this 
must  be  done  with  judgment.  The  plates 
should  be  trimmed  to  correspond  as  far  as 
possible  with  the  printing  on  the  opposite 

40 


Outer  Side. 


Folding 


Vi 


Inner  Side. 
A  DUODECIODO  SHEET. 

FIG.  4. 


Folding  page,  but  if  this  cannot  be  done,  it  is  desir- 
able that  something  approaching  the  pro- 
portion of  margin  shown  at  fig.  2  (folio) 
should  be  aimed  at.  That  is  to  say,  the 
back  margin  should  be  the  smallest,  the 
head  margin  the  next,  the  fore-edge  a  little 
wider,  and  the  tail  widest  of  all.  When  a 
plate  consists  of  a  small  portrait  or  diagram 
in  the  centre  of  the  page,  it  looks  better  if 
it  is  put  a  little  higher  and  a  little  nearer 
the  back  than  the  actual  centre. 

Plates  that  have  no  numbers  on  them 
must  be  put  in  order  by  the  list  of  printed 
plates,  or  "  instructions  to  the  binder." 
The  half-title,  title,  dedication,  &c.,  will 
often  be  found  to  be  printed  on  odd  sheets 
that  have  to  be  made  up  into  section  A. 
This  preliminary  matter  is  usually  placed 
in  the  following  order :  Half-title,  title, 
dedication,  preface,  contents,  list  of  illus- 
trations or  other  lists.  If  there  is  an  index, 
it  should  be  put  at  the  end  of  the  book. 

All  plates  should  be  "guarded,"  and 
any  "  quarter  sections,"  that  is,  sections 
consisting  of  two  leaves,  should  have  their 
backs  strengthened  by  a  "  guard,"  or  they 
may  very  easily  be  torn  in  the  sewing. 
Odd,  single  leaves  may  be  guarded  round 
sections  in  the  same  way  as  plates. 

42 


When  a  book  has  been  folded,  it  should     Folding 
be  pressed  (see  p.  87). 

There  will  sometimes  be  pages  marked 
by  the  printer  with  a  star.  These  have 
some  error  in  them,  and  are  intended  to 
be  cut  out.  The  printer  should  supply 
corrected  pages  to  replace  them. 

COLLATING 

In  addition  to  the  pagination  each  sheet  Collating 
or  section  of  a  printed  book  is  lettered  or 
numbered.  Each  letter  or  number  is  called 
the  "  sheet's  signature."  Printers  usually 
leave  out  J  W  and  V  in  lettering  sheets. 
If  there  are  more  sections  than  there  are 
letters  in  the  alphabet,  the  printer  doubles 
the  letters,  signing  the  sections  A  A,  BB, 
and  so  on,  after  the  single  letters  are  ex- 
hausted. Some  printers  use  an  Arabic 
numeral  before  the  section  number  to 
denote  the  second  alphabet,  as  2 A,  26, 
&c.,  and  others  change  the  character  of 
the  letters,  perhaps  using  capitals  for  the 
first  alphabet  and  italics  for  the  second. 
If  the  sheets  are  numbered,  the  numbers 
will  of  course  follow  consecutively.  In 
books  of  more  than  one  volume,  the  num- 
ber of  the  volume  is  sometimes  added  in 

43 


Collating    Roman  numerals  before  the  signature,  as 
II  A,  II  B. 

The  main  pagination  of  the  book  usually 
commences  with  Chapter  I.,  and  all  before 
that  is  independently  paged  in  Roman 
numerals.  It  is  unusual  to  have  actual 
numbers  on  the  title  or  half-title,  but  if 
the  pages  are  counted  back  from  where 
the  first  numeral  occurs,  they  should  come 

right- 
There  will  sometimes  be  one  or  more 
blank  leaves  completing  sections  at  the 
beginning  or  end.  Such  blank  leaves  must 
be  retained,  as  without  them  the  volume 
would  be  "  imperfect." 

To  collate  a  modern  book  the  paging 
must  be  examined  to  see  that  the  leaves 
are  in  order,  and  that  nothing  is  defective 
or  missing. 

The  method  of  doing  this  is  to  insert  the 
first  finger  of  the  right  hand  at  the  bottom 
of  about  the  fiftieth  page,  crook  the  finger, 
and  turn  up  the  corners  of  the  pages  with 
it.  When  this  is  done  the  thumb  is  placed 
on  page  i ,  and  the  hand  twisted,  so  as  to  fan 
out  the  top  of  the  pages.  They  can  then 
be  readily  turned  over  by  the  thumb  and 
first  finger  of  the  left  hand  (see  fig.  5). 
This  is  repeated  throughout  the  book, 

44 


taking   about   fifty   pages  at  a  time.     It    Collating 
will  of  course  only  be  necessary  to  check 
the  odd  numbers,  as  if  they  are  right,  the 


FIG.  5. 


even  ones  on  the  other  side  of  the  leaf 
must  be  so.  If  the  pages  are  numbered  at 
the  foot,  the  leaves  must  be  fanned  out 
from  the  head. 

Plates  or  maps  that  are  not  paged  can 
only  be  checked  from  the  printed  list. 
When  checked  it  will  save  time  if  the 

45 


Collating  number  of  the  page  which  each  faces  is 
marked  on  the  back  in  small  pencil  figures. 
In  the  case  of  early  printed  books  or 
manuscripts,  which  are  often  not  paged, 
special  knowledge  is  needed  for  their 
collation.  It  may  roughly  be  said,  that 
if  the  sections  are  all  complete,  that  rs, 
if  there  are  the  same  number  of  Jeaves 
at  each  side  of  the  sewing  in  all  the 
sections,  the  book  may  be  taken  to  be 
perfect,  unless  of  course  whole  sections 
are  missing.  All  unpaged  books  should 
be  paged  through  in  pencil  before  they 
are  taken  apart ;  this  is  best  done  with  a 
very  fine  pencil,  at  the  bottom  left-hand 
corner ;  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  num- 
ber the  front  of  each  leaf. 

PULLING    TO    PIECES 

Pulling  to        After  the  volume   has  been  collated  it 
Pieces      must    be  "  pulled,"  that    is    to    say,    the 
sections  must  be  separated,  and  all  plates 
or  maps  detached. 

If  in  a  bound  book  there  are  slips  laced 
in  the  front  cover,  they  must  be  cut  and 
the  back  torn  off.  It  will  sometimes 
happen  that  in  tearing  off  the  leather 
nearly  all  the  glue  will  come  too,  leaving 
46 


the  backs  of  the  pages  detached  except  Pulling  to 
for  the  sewing.  More  usually  the  back  Pieces 
will  be  left  covered  with  a  mass  of  glue 
and  linen,  or  paper,  which  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  remove  without  injury  to  the 
backs  of  the  sections.  By  drawing  a  sharp 
knife  along  the  bands,  the  sewing  may  be 
cut  and  the  bands  removed,  leaving  the 
sections  only  connected  by  the  glue. 
Then  the  sections  of  the  book  can  usually 
be  separated  with  a  fine  folder,  after  the 
thread  from  the  centre  of  each  has  been 
removed ;  the  point  of  division  being 
ascertained  by  finding  the  first  signature 
of  each  section.  In  cases  where  the  glue 
and  leather  form  too  hard  a  back  to  yield 
to  this  method,  it  is  advisable  to  soak  the 
glue  with  paste,  and  when  soft  to  scrape 
it  off  with  a  folder.  As  this  method  is 
apt  to  injure  the  backs  of  the  sections, 
it  should  not  be  resorted  to  unless  neces- 
sary ;  and  when  it  is,  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  let  the  damp  penetrate  into  the 
book,  or  it  will  cause  very  ugly  stains. 
The  book  must  be  pulled  while  damp, 
or  else  the  glue  will  dry  up  harder  than 
before.  The  separated  sections  must  be 
piled  up  carefully  to  prevent  pages  being 
soiled  by  the  damp  glue. 

47 


Pulling  to  All  plates  or  single  leaves  "  pasted  on  " 
Pieces  must  be  removed.  These  can  usually  be 
detached  by  carefully  tearing  apart,  but 
if  too  securely  pasted  they  must  be  soaked 
off  in  water,  unless  of  course  the  plates 
have  been  painted  with  water-colour.  If 
the  plates  must  be  soaked  off,  the  leaf 
and  attached  plate  should  be  put  into  a 
pan  of  slightly  warm  water  and  left  to 
soak  until  they  float  apart,  then  with  a 
soft  brush  any  remaining  glue  or  paste 
can  be  easily  removed  while  in  the  water. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  soak  modern 
books  printed  on  what  is  called  "  Art 
Paper,"  as  this  paper  will  hardly  stand 
ordinary  handling,  and  is  absolutely  ruined 
if  wetted.  The  growing  use  of  this  paper 
in  important  books  is  one  of  the  greatest 
troubles  the  bookbinder  has  to  face.  The 
highly  loaded  and  glazed  surface  of  some 
of  the  heavy  plate  papers  easily  flakes  off, 
so  that  any  guard  pasted  on  these  plates 
is  apt  to  come  away,  taking  with  it  the 
surface  of  the  paper.  Moreover,  should 
the  plates  chance  to  be  fingered  or  in  any 
way  soiled,  nothing  can  remove  the  marks ; 
and  should  a  corner  get  turned  down,  the 
paper  breaks  and  the  corner  will  fall  off. 
It  is  the  opinion  of  experts  that  this 
48 


heavily  loaded  Art  Paper  will  not  last  a    Pulling  to 
reasonable    time,   and,   apart    from    other       Pieces 
considerations,  this  should  be  ample  reason 
for  not  using  it  in  books  that  are  expected 
to  have  a  permanent  value.      Printers  like 
this    paper,  because    it    enables    them    to 
obtain   brilliant   impressions   from   blocks 
produced  by  cheap  processes. 

In  "  cased  "  books,  sewn  by  machinery, 
the  head  and  tail  of  the  sheets  will  often 
be  found  to  be  split  up  as  far  as  the 
"  kettle  "  stitches.  If  such  a  book  is  to 
be  expensively  bound,  it  will  require  mend- 
ing throughout  in  these  places,  or  the  glue 
may  soak  into  the  torn  ends,  and  make  the 
book  open  stiffly. 

Some  books  are  put  together  with  staples 
of  tinned  iron  wire,  which  rapidly  rust  and 
disfigure  the  book  by  circular  brown  marks. 
Such  marks  will  usually  have  to  be  cut  out 
and  the  places  carefully  mended.  This  pro- 
cess is  lengthy,  and  consequently  so  costly, 
that  it  is  generally  cheaper,  when  possible, 
to  obtain  an  unbound  copy  of  the  book  from 
the  publishers,  than  to  waste  time  repairing 
the  damage  done  by  the  cloth  binder. 

Generally   speaking,   the   sections   of  a 
book  cased  in  cloth  by  modern  methods 
are  so  injured  as  to  make  it  unfit  for  more 
4  49 


Pulling  to  permanent  binding  unless  an  unreasonable 
Pieces  amount  of  time  is  spent  on  it.  It  is  a 
great  pity  that  publishers  do  not,  in  the 
case  of  books  expected  to  have  a  perma- 
nent literary  value,  issue  a  certain  number 
of  copies  printed  on  good  paper,  and  un- 
bound, for  the  use  of  those  who  require 
permanent  bindings  ;  and  in  such  copies  it 
would  be  a  great  help  if  sufficient  margin 
were  left  at  the  back  of  the  plates  for  the 
binder  to  turn  it  up  to  form  a  guard.  If 
the  plates  were  very  numerous,  guards 
made  of  the  substance  of  the  plates  them- 
selves would  make  the  book  too  thick  ;  but 
in  the  case  of  books  with  not  more  than  a 
dozen  plates,  printed  on  comparatively 
thin  paper,  it  would  be  a  great  advantage. 
Some  books  in  which  there  are  a  large 
number  of  plates  are  cut  into  single  leaves, 
which  are  held  together  at  the  back  by  a 
coating  of  an  indiarubber  solution.  For  a 
short  time  such  a  volume  is  pleasant  enough 
to  handle,  and  opens  freely,  but  before  long 
the  indiarubber  perishes,  and  the  leaves  and 
plates  fall  apart.  When  a  book  of  this 
kind  comes  to  have  a  permanent  binding, 
all  the  leaves  and  plates  have  to  be  pared 
at  the  back  and  made  up  into  sections 
with  guards — a  troublesome  and  expensive 

50 


Pulling  to 
Pieces 


business.  The  custom  with  binders  is  to 
overcast  the  backs  of  the  leaves  in  sections, 
and  to  sew  through  the  overcasting  thread, 
but  this,  though  an  easy  and  quick  process, 
makes  a  hopelessly  stiff  back,  and  no  book 
so  treated  can  open  freely. 

REFOLDING 

When  the  sheets  of  books  that  have  to  Refolding 
be  rebound  have  been 
carelessly  folded,  a 
certain  amount  of  re- 
adjustment is  often 
advisable,  especially 
in  cases  where  the 
book  has  not  been 
previously  cut.  The 
title  -  page  and  the 
half-title,  when  found 
to  be  out  of  square, 
should  nearly  always 
be  put  straight.  The 
folding  of  the  whole 
book  may  be  cor- 
rected by  taking  each 
pair  of  leaves  and 
holding  them  up  to  the  light  and  ad- 
justing the  fold  so  that  the  print  on  one 
leaf  comes  exactly  over  the  print  on  the 

51 


FIG.   6. — Dividers 


Refolding  other,  and  creasing  the  fold  to  make  them 
stay  in  that  position.  With  a  pair  of 
dividers  (fig.  6)  set  to  the  height  of  the 
shortest  top  margin,  points  the  same  dis- 
tance above  the  headline  of  the  other  leaves 
can  be  made.  Then  against  a  carpenter's 
square,  adjusted  to  the  back  of  the  fold,  the 
head  of  one  pair  of  leaves  at  a  time  can  be 
cut  square  (see  fig.  7).  If  the  book  has 


FIG.   7. 


been  previously  cut  this  process  is  apt  to 
throw  the  leaves  so  far  out  of  their  original 
position  as  to  make  them  unduly  uneven. 

Accurate  folding  is  impossible  if  the 
"  register  "  of  the  printing  is  bad,  that  is 
to  say,  if  the  print  on  the  back  of  a  leaf 
does  not  lie  exactly  over  that  on  the  front. 

Crooked  plates  should  usually  be  made 
straight  by  judicious  trimming  of  the  mar- 
gins. It  is  better  to  leave  a  plate  short  at 


tail  or  fore-edge  than  to  leave  it  out  of   Refolding 
square. 

KNOCKING    OUT   JOINTS 

The  old  "joints  "  must  be  knocked  out  Knocking 
of  the  sections  of  books  that  have  been  out  joints 
previously  backed.  To  do  this,  one  or  two 
sections  at  a  time  are  held  firmly  in  the  left 
hand,  and  well  hammered  on  the  knocking- 
down  iron  fixed  into  the  lying  press.  It 
is  important  that  the  hammer  face  should 
fall  exactly  squarely  upon  the  paper,  or 
it  may  cut  pieces  out.  The  knocking- 
down  iron  should  be  covered  with  a  piece 
of  paper,  and  the  hammer  face  must  be 
perfectly  clean,  or  the  sheets  may  be  soiled. 

CHAPTER   III 

Guarding — Throwing  Out — Paring  Paper — Soaking 
off  India  Proofs — Mounting  very  Thin  Paper — 
Splitting  Paper — Inlaying — Flattening  Vellum 

GUARDING 

GUARDS  are  slips  of  thin  paper  or  linen    Guarding 
used  for  strengthening  the  fold  of  leaves 
that  are  damaged,  or  for  attaching  plates 
or  single  leaves. 

Guards  should  be  of  good  thin  paper. 
That  known  as  Whatman's  Banknote  paper 

53 


FIG.    8. 


Guarding    answers  very  well.     An  easy  way  to  cut 
guards  is  shown  in  fig.  8.     Two  or  three 

pieces  of  paper 
of  the  height  of 
the  required 
guards  are  fold- 
ed and  pinned  to 
the  board  by  the 
right  -  hand  cor- 
ners. A  series 

of  points  are  marked  at  the  head  and 
tail  with  dividers  set  to  the  width  desired 
for  the  guards,  and  with  a  knife  guided 
by  a  straight  -  edge,  cuts  joining  the 
points  are  made  right  through  the  paper, 
but  not  extending  quite  to  either  end. 
On  a  transverse  cut  being  made  near  the 
bottom,  the  guards  are  left  attached  by 
one  end  only  (see 
fig.  9),  and  can 
be  torn  off  as 
wanted.  This 
method  prevents 
the  paper  from 
slipping  while  it 
is  being  cut. 

A   mount   cutter's  knife   (fig.    10)   will 
be  found  to  be  a  convenient  form  of  knife 
to  use  for  cutting  guards. 
54 


In  using  the  knife  and  straight-edge  a    Guarding 
good  deal  of  pressure  should  be  put  on 


FIG.   10. — Mount  Cutter's  Knife 

the  straight-edge,  and  comparatively  little 
on  the  knife. 

To  mend  the  torn  back  of  a  pair  of 
leaves,  a  guard  should  be  selected  a  little 
longer  than  the  height  of  the  pages 
and  well  pasted  with  white  paste  (see 
page  288).  If  the  pair  of  leaves  are  not 
quite  separated,  the  pasted  guard  held  by 
its  extremities  may  be  simply  laid  along 
the  weak  place  and  rubbed  down  through 
blotting-paper.  If  the  leaves  are  quite 
apart,  it  is  better  to  lay  the  pasted  guard 
on  a  piece  of  glass  and  put  the  edges  of 
first  one  and  then  the  other  leaf  on  to  it 
and  rub  down. 

On  an  outside  pair  of  leaves  the  guard 
should  be  inside,  so  that  the  glue  may 
catch  any  ragged  edges ;  while  on  the 
inside  pair  the  guard  should  be  outside,  or 
it  will  be  found  to  be  troublesome  in  sewing. 
In  handling  the  pasted  guards  care  is 
needed  not  to  stretch  them,  or  they  may 
cause  the  sheet  to  crinkle  as  they  dry. 

55 


Guarding  Plates  must  be  guarded  round  the 
sections  next  them.  When  there  are  a 
great  many  plates  the  back  margin  of 
each,  to  which  a  guard  will  be  attached, 


i  , 

A 


must  be  pared  (see  fig.  1 1,  A),  or  the  ad- 
ditional thickness  caused  by  the  guards 
will  make  the  back  swell  unduly.  In 
guarding  plates  a  number  can  be  pasted 
at  once  if  they  are  laid  one  on  another, 
with  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  of  the 
back  of  each  exposed,  the  top  of  the  pile 
being  protected  by  a  folded  piece  of 
waste  paper  (see  fig.  12).  To  paste,  the 
brush  is  brought  from  the  top  to  the 
bottom  of  the  pile  only,  and  not  the 
other  way,  or  paste  will  get  between 
the  plates  and  soil  them.  Guards  should 
usually  be  attached  to  the  backs  of  plates, 
and  should  be  wide  enough  to  turn  up 
round  the  adjoining  section,  so  that  they 

56 


may  be  sewn   through.     Should    a  plate    Guarding 
come  in  the  middle  of  a  section,  the  guard 


FJG.   12. 

is  best  turned  back  and  slightly  pasted  to 
the  inside  of  the  sheet  and  then  sewn 
through  in  the  ordinary  way. 

If  plates  are  very  thick,  they  must  be 
hinged,  as  shown  at  fig.  n,  B.  This  is 
done  by  cutting  a  strip  of  about  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  off  the  back  of  the  plate,  and 
guarding  with  a  wide  guard  of  linen,  leav- 
ing a  small  space  between  the  plate  and 
the  piece  cut  off  to  form  a  hinge.  It  will 
save  some  swelling  if  the  plate  is  pared 
and  a  piece  of  thinner  paper  substituted 
for  the  piece  cut  off  (see  fig.  n,  C).  If 
the  plates  are  of  cardboard,  they  should 
be  guarded  on  both  sides  with  linen,  and 
may  even  need  a  second  joint. 

A  book  that  consists  entirely  of  plates 

57 


Guarding  or  single  leaves  must  be  made  up  into 
sections  with  guards,  and  sewn  as  usual. 
In  books  in  which  there  are  a  great  many 
plates,  it  is  often  found  that  two  plates 
either  come  together  in  the  centre  of  a 
section,  or  come  at  opposite  sides  of  the 
same  pair  of  leaves.  Such  plates  should 
be  guarded  together  and  treated  as  folded 
sheets  (see  fig.  13). 


FIG.    13. 

In  order  to  be  sure  that  the  pages  of 
a  book  to  be  guarded  throughout  will 
come  in  their  proper  order,  it  is  well  to 
make  a  plan  of  the  sections  as  follows, 
and  to  check  each  pair  of  leaves  by  it,  as 
they  are  guarded  : — 

Thus,  if  the  book  is  to  be  made  up 
into  sections  of  eight  leaves,  the  pairs  of 
leaves  to  be  guarded  together  can  be  seen 
at  once  if  the  number  of  the  pages  are 
written  out — 

i»  3»  5»  7»  — 9»   "»   *3>   *5- 

First  the  inside  pair,  7  and  9,  are  guarded 
together  with  the  guard  outside,  then  the 
next  pair,  5  and  n,  then  3  and  13,  and 


then    the   outside  pair,    I    and    15,  which    Guarding 
should  have  the  guard  outside.     A  plan 
for  the  whole  book  would  be  more  con- 
veniently written  thus — 


1-15 

I7-31 

33-47 

3-13 

19-29 

35-45 

5-1  1 

21-27 

37-43 

7-9 

23-25 

39—41,  and  so  on. 

To  arrange  a  book  of  single  leaves  for 
guarding,  it  is  convenient  to  take  as  many 
leaves  as  you  intend  to  go  to  a  section, 
and  opening  them  in  the  centre,  take  a 
pair  at  a  time  as  they  come. 

The  number  of  leaves  it  is  advisable  to 
put  into  a  section  will  depend  on  the  thick- 
ness of  the  paper  and  the  size  and  thick- 
ness of  the  book.  If  the  paper  is  thick, 
and  the  backs  of  the  leaves  have  been 
pared,  four  leaves  to  a  section  will  be 
found  to  answer.  But  if  the  paper  is  thin, 
and  does  not  allow  of  much  paring,  it  is 
better  to  have  a  larger  section,  in  order 
to  have  as  little  thread  in  the  back  as 
possible. 

The  sheets  of  any  guarded  book  should 
be  pressed  before  sewing,  in  order  to  re- 
duce the  swelling  of  the  back  caused  by 
the  guards. 

59 


Throwing 
Out 


60 


FIG.    14. 


THROWING    OUT 

Maps  or  dia- 
grams that  are 
frequently  re- 
ferred to  in  the 
text  of  a  book, 
should  be 
"  thrown  out  " 
on  a  guard  as 
wide  as  the  sheet 
of  the  book. 
Such  maps,  &c., 
should  be  placed 
at  the  end,  so 
that  they  may 
lie  open  for  re- 
ference while 
the  book  is 
being  read  (see 
fig.  14).  Large 
folded  maps  or 
diagrams  should 
be  mounted  on 
linen.  To  do 
this  take  a  piece 
of  jaconet  and 
pin  it  out  flat 
on  the  board, 


then  evenly  paste  the  back  of  the  map  Throwing 
with  thin  paste  in  which  there  are  no  Out 
lumps,  and  lay  it  on  the  linen,  rub 
down  through  blotting-paper,  and  leave 
to  dry.  Unless  the  pasting  is  done 
evenly  the  marks  of  the  paste-brush  will 
show  through  the  linen.  If  a  folded 
map  is  printed  on  very  thick  paper  each 
fold  must  be  cut  up,  and  the  separate 
pieces  mounted  on  the  linen,  with  a  slight 
space  between  them  to  form  a  flexible  joint. 
A  folded  map  must  have  in  the  back 
of  the  book  sufficient  guards  to  equal  it 


FIG.    15. 


in  thickness  at  its  thickest  part  when 
folded,  or  the  book  will  not  shut  properly 
(see  fig.  15). 


PARING     PAPER 


For  paring  the  edge  of  paper  for  mend- 
ing or  guarding,  take  a  very  sharp  knife, 

61 


Paring  Paper  and  holding  the  blade  at  right  angles  to 
the  covering-board,  draw  the  edge  once  or 
twice  along  it  from  left  to  right.  This 
should  turn  up  enough  of  the  edge  to 
form  a  "  burr,"  which  causes  the  knife  to 
cut  while  being  held  almost  flat  on  the 
paper.  The  plate  or  paper  should  be  laid 
face  downwards  on  the  glass  with  the 
edge  to  be  pared  away  from  the  workman, 
the  knife  held  in  the  right  hand,  with  the 
burr  downwards.  The  angle  at  which  to 
hold  the  knife  will  depend  on  its  shape 
and  on  the  thickness  and  character  of 
the  paper  to  be  pared,  and  can  only  be 
learned  by  practice.  If  the  knife  is  in 
order,  and  is  held  at  the  proper  angle, 
the  shaving  removed  from  a  straight  edge 
of  paper  should  come  off  in  a  long  spiral. 
If  the  knife  is  not  in  proper  order,  the 
paper  may  be  badly  jagged  or  creased. 

SOAKING     OFF    INDIA     PROOFS 

Soaking  off       Place  a  piece  of  well-sized  paper  in  a 

India  Proofs  pan  of  warm  water,  then  lay  the  mounted 

India  proof,  face  downwards,  upon  it  and 

leave  it  to  soak  until  the  proof  floats  off. 

Then  carefully  take  out  the  old  mount, 

and  the  India  proof  can  be  readily  removed 

62 


from   the  water  on  the  under  paper,  and   Soaking  off 
dried  between  sheets  of  blotting-paper.        India  Proofs 


MOUNTING    VERY    THIN     PAPER 


Very  thin  paper,  such  as  that  of  some    Mounting 
"  India  "   proofs,  may  be  safely  mounted   vei7  Tnin 
as  follows  : — The  mount,  ready  for  use,       Paper 
is  laid  on  a  pad  of  blotting-paper.     The 
thin    paper    to    be   mounted   is   laid  face 
downwards  on  a  piece  of  glass  and  very 
carefully   pasted   with    thin,  white    paste. 
Any  paste  on  the  glass  beyond  the  edges 
of  the  paper  is  carefully  wiped  off  with 
a   clean   cloth.     The   glass   may  then  be 
turned  over,  and  the  pasted  plate  laid  on 
the  mount,  its  exact  position  being  seen 
through  the  glass. 


SPLITTING    PAPER 


It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  split  pieces    Splitting 
of  paper  when  the  matter  on  one  side  only      Paper 
is  needed,  or  when  the  matter  printed  on 
each  side  is  to  be  used  in  different  places. 
The    paper    to   be    split    should   be  well 
pasted  on  both  sides  with  a  thickish  paste, 
and  fine  linen  or  jaconet  placed  on  each 
side.     It  is  then  nipped  in  the  press  to 

63 


Splitting 

Paper 


make  the  linen  stick  all  over,  and  left  to 


If  the  two  pieces  of  jaconet  are  care- 
fully pulled  apart  when  dry,  half  the 
paper  should  be  attached  to  each,  unless 
at  any  point  the  paste  has  failed  to  stick, 
when  the  paper  will  tear.  The  jaconet 
and  paper  attached  must  be  put  into  warm 
water  until  the  split  paper  floats  off. 


Inlaying 

Leaves  or 

Plates 


INLAYING  LEAVES  OR  PLATES 

When  a  small  plate  or  leaf  has  to  be 
inserted  into  a  larger  book,  it  is  best  to 
"  inlay  it "  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  plate  or 
leaf  is  let  into  a  sheet  of 
paper  the  size  of  the  page 
of  the  book.  To  do  this,  a 
piece  of  paper  as  thick  as 
the  plate  to  be  inlaid,  or 
a  little  thicker,  is  selected, 
and  on  this  is  laid  the  plate, 
which  should  have  been 
previously  squared,  and  the 
positions  of  the  corners  marked  with  a 
folder.  A  point  is  made  about  an  eighth  of 
an  inch  inside  each  corner  mark,  and  the 
paper  within  these  points  is  cut  out  (see  fig. 
1 6).  This  leaves  a  frame  of  paper,  the 
64 


FIG. 


inner  edges  of  which  will  slightly  overlap  Inlaying 
the  edges  of  the  plate.  The  under  edge  Leaves  or 
of  the  plate,  and  the  upper  edge  of  the 
mount,  should  then  be  pared  and  pasted, 
and  the  plate  laid  in  its  place  (with  the 
corners  corresponding  to  the  folder  marks). 
If  the  edges  have  been  properly  pared,  the 
thickness  where  they  overlap  should  not 
exceed  the  thickness  of  the  frame  paper. 
If  an  irregular  fragment  is  to  be  inlaid, 
it  is  done  in  the  same  way,  except  that  the 
entire  outline  is  traced  on  the  new  paper 
with  a  folder,  and  the  paper  cut  away, 
allowing  one  eighth  of  an  inch  inside  the 
indented  line. 


FLATTENING    VELLUM 

The  leaves  of  a  vellum  book  that  have   Flattening 
become  cockled  from  damp  or  other  causes     Vellum 
may  be  flattened  by  damping  them,  pull- 
ing them  out  straight,  and  allowing  them 
to  dry  under  pressure.     To  do  this  take 
the   book   to    pieces,    clean   out  any   dirt 
there  may  be  in  the  folds  of  the  leaves,  and 
spread  out  each  pair  of  leaves  as  flatly  as 
possible. 

Damp    some  white    blotting-paper    by 
interleaving  it  with  common  white  paper 

5  6 


Flattening  that  has  been  wetted  with  a  sponge.  One 
Vellum  sheet  of  wet  paper  to  two  of  blotting- 
paper  will  be  enough.  The  pile  of  blot- 
ting-paper and  wet  paper  is  put  in  the 
press  and  left  for  an  hour  or  two  under 
pressure,  then  taken  out  and  the  common 
paper  removed. 

The  blotting-paper  should  now  be 
slightly  and  evenly  damp.  To  flatten  the 
vellum  the  open  pairs  of  leaves  are  inter- 
leaved with  the  slightly  damp  blotting- 
paper,  and  are  left  for  an  hour  under  the 
weight  of  a  pressing-board.  After  this 
time  the  vellum  will  have  become  quite 
soft,  and  can  with  care  be  flattened  out 
and  lightly  pressed  between  the  blotting- 
paper,  and  left  for  a  night.  The  next  day 
the  vellum  leaves  should  be  looked  at  to 
see  that  they  lie  quite  flat,  and  the  blot- 
ting-paper changed  for  some  that  is  dry. 
The  vellum  must  remain  under  pressure 
until  it  is  quite  dry,  or  it  will  cockle  up 
worse  than  ever  when  exposed  to  the  air. 
The  blotting-paper  should  be  changed 
every  day  or  two.  The  length  of  time 
that  vellum  leaves  take  to  dry  will  vary 
with  the  state  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the 
thickness  of  the  vellum,  from  one  to  six 
weeks. 

66 


Almost  any    manuscript     or     printed   Flattening 
book  on  vellum    can  be  successfully  flat-      Vellum 
tened  in  this  way  ;  miniatures  should  have 
pieces  of  waxed  paper  laid  over  them  to 
prevent  the  chance  of  any  of  the  fibres  of 
the  blotting-paper  sticking.     The  pressure 
must  not  be  great ;  only  enough  is  needed 
to  keep  the  vellum  flat  as  it  dries. 

This  process  of  flattening,  although  so 
simple,  requires  the  utmost  care.  If  the 
blotting-paper  is  used  too  damp,  a  manu- 
script may  be  ruined ;  and  if  not  damp 
enough,  the  pressing  will  have  no  effect. 


CHAPTER    IV 

Sizing — Washing — M  ending 
SIZING 

THE  paper  in  old  books  is  sometimes  soft     Sizing 
and  woolly.     This  is  generally  because  the 
size   has    perished,  and    such    paper    can 
often    be  made    perfectly    sound    by    re- 
sizing. 

For  size,  an  ounce  of  isinglass  or  good 
gelatine  is  .dissolved  in  a  quart  of  water. 
This  should  make  a  clear  solution  when 


Sizing  gently  warmed,  and  should  be  used  at 
about  a  temperature  of  120°  F.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  heat  too  quickly, 
or  the  solution  may  burn  and  turn  brown. 
If  the  size  is  not  quite  clear,  it  should 
be  strained  through  fine  muslin  or  linen 
before  being  used.  When  it  is  ready  it 
should  be  poured  into  an  open  pan  (fig. 
17),  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  kept  warm 


FIG.    17. 


by  a  gas  flame  or  spirit  lamp  underneath. 
When  this  is  ready  the  sheets  to  be  sized 
can  be  put  in  one  after  another  and  taken 
out  at  once.  The  hot  size  will  be  found 
to  take  out  a  great  many  stains,  and  espe- 
cially those  deep  brown  stains  that  come 
from  water.  If  there  are  only  a  few 
sheets,  they  can  be  placed  between  blotting- 
paper  as  they  are  removed  from  the  size ; 
but  if  there  is  a  whole  book,  it  is  best  to 
lay  them  in  a  pile  one  on  the  other,  and 
68 


when  all  have  been  sized  to  squeeze  them  Sizing 
in  the  "  lying  press "  between  pressing- 
boards,  a  pan  being  put  underneath  to 
catch  the  liquid  squeezed  out.  When 
the  sheets  have  been  squeezed  they  can 
be  readily  handled,  and  should  be  spread 
out  to  dry  on  a  table  upon  clean  paper. 
When  they  are  getting  dry  and  firm  they 
can  be  hung  on  strings  stretched  across 
the  room,  slightly  overlapping  one  an- 
other. The  strings  must  first  be  covered 
with  slips  of  clean  paper,  and  the  sized 
sheets  should  have  more  paper  over  them 
to  keep  them  clean. 

Before  sizing  it  will  be  necessary  to  go 
through  a  book  and  take  out  any  pencil 
or  dust  marks  that  can  be  removed  with 
indiarubber  or  bread  crumbs,  or  the  size 
will  fix  them,  and  it  will  be  found  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  remove  them  afterwards. 

When  the  sheets  are  dry  they  should 
be  carefully  mended  in  any  places  that 
may  be  torn,  and  folded  up  into  sections 
and  pressed.  A  long,  comparatively  light 
pressure  will  be  found  to  flatten  them 
better  and  with  less  injury  to  the  surface 
of  the  paper  than  a  short,  very  heavy  press- 
ure, such  as  that  of  the  rolling-machine. 

In   some    cases  it  will   be  found    that 

69 


Sizing  sheets  of  old  books  are  so  far  damaged 
as  to  be  hardly  strong  enough  to  handle. 
Such  sheets  must  be  sized  in  rather  a 

stronger  size  in  the  following  way  : — Take 

i 
a   sheet   of  heavily-sized   paper,  such    as 

notepaper,  and  carefully  lay  your  damaged 
sheet  on  that.  Then  put  another  sheet 
of  strong  paper  on  the  top,  and  put  all 
three  sheets  into  the  size.  It  will  be 
found  that  the  top  sheet  can  then  be 
easily  lifted  off,  and  the  size  be  made  to 
flow  over  the  face  of  the  damaged  sheet. 
Then,  if  the  top  sheet  be  put  on  again, 
the  three  sheets,  if  handled  as  one,  can  be 
turned  over  and  the  operation  repeated, 
and  size  induced  to  cover  the  back  of 
the  damaged  leaf.  The  three  sheets 
must  then  be  taken  out  and  laid  between 
blotting-paper  to  take  up  the  surplus 
moisture.  The  top  sheet  must  then  be 
carefully  peeled  off,  and  the  damaged 
page  laid  face  downwards  on  clean  blot- 
ting-paper. Then  the  back  sheet  can  be 
peeled  off  as  well,  leaving  the  damaged 
sheet  to  dry. 

The  following  is  quoted  from  "  Cham- 
bers' Encyclopaedia  "  on  Gelatine  : — 

"  Gelatine  should  never  be  judged  by 
the  eye  alone. 

70 


"  Its  purity  may  be  very  easily  tested  Sizing 
thus :  Soak  it  in  cold  water,  then  pour 
upon  it  a  small  quantity  of  boiling  water. 
If  pure,  it  will  form  a  thickish,  clear  straw- 
coloured  solution,  free  from  smell ;  but  if 
made  of  impure  materials,  it  will  give  off 
a  very  offensive  odour,  and  have  a  yellow, 
gluey  consistency." 

WASHING 

When  there  are  stains  or  ink  marks  on  Washing 
books  that  cannot  be  removed  by  the  use  of 
hot  size  or  hot  water,  stronger  measures  may 
sometimes  have  to  be  taken.  Many  stains 
will  be  found  to  yield  readily  to  hot  water 
with  a  little  alum  in  it,  and  others  can  be 
got  out  by  a  judicious  application  of  curd 
soap  with  a  very  soft  brush  and  plenty  of 
warm  water.  But  some,  and  especially  ink 
stains,  require  further  treatment.  There 
are  many  ways  of  washing  paper,  and  most 
of  those  in  common  use  are  extremely 
dangerous,  and  have  in  many  cases  resulted 
in  the  absolute  destruction  of  fine  books. 
If  it  is  thought  to  be  absolutely  necessary 
that  the  sheets  of  a  book  should  be  washed, 
the  safest  method  is  as  follows  : — Take  an 
ounce  of  permanganate  of  potash  dissolved 

71 


Washing  in  a  quart  of  water,  and  warmed  slightly. 
In  this  put  the  sheets  to  be  washed,  and 
leave  them  until  they  turn  a  dark  brown. 
This  will  usually  take  about  an  hour,  but 
may  take  longer  for  some  papers.  Then 
turn  the  sheets  out  and  wash  them  in 
running  water  until  all  trace  of  purple 
stain  disappears  from  the  water  as  it  comes 
away.  Then  transfer  them  to  a  bath  of 
sulphurous  (not  sulphuric)  acid  and  water 
in  the  proportion  of  one  ounce  of  acid  to 
one  pint  of  water.  The  sheets  in  this 
solution  will  rapidly  turn  white,  and  if 
left  for  some  time  nearly  all  stains  will  be 
removed.  In  case  any  stains  refuse  to 
come  out,  the  sheets  should  be  put  in 
clear  water  for  a  short  time,  and  then 
placed  in  the  permanganate  of  potash  solu- 
tion again,  and  left  there  for  a  longer  time 
than  before;  then  after  washing  in  clear 
water,  again  transferred  to  the  sulphurous 
acid.  When  sheets  are  removed  from  the 
sulphurous  acid  they  should  be  well  washed 
for  an  hour  or  two  in  running  water,  and 
then  may  be  blotted  or  squeezed  off  and 
hung  up  on  lines  to  dry.  Any  sheets 
treated  in  this  way  will  require  sizing 
afterwards.  And  if,  as  is  often  the  case, 
only  a  few  sheets  at  the  beginning  or  end 
72 


of  the  book  have  to  be  washed,  it  will  be  Washing 
necessary  to  tone  down  the  washed  sheets 
to  match  the  rest  of  the  book  by  putting 
some  stain  in  the  size.  For  staining  there 
are  many  things  used.  A  weak  solution 
of  permanganate  of  potash  gives  a  yellowish 
stain  that  will  be  found  to  match  many 
papers.  Other  stains  are  used,  such  as 
coffee,  chicory,  tea,  liquorice,  &c.  Whatever 
is  used  should  be  put  in  the  size.  To  as- 
certain that  the  right  depth  of  colour  has 
been  obtained,  a  piece  of  unsized  paper, 
such  as  white  blotting-paper,  is  dipped  in 
the  stained  size  and  blotted  off  and  dried 
before  the  fire.  It  is  impossible  to  judge 
of  the  depth  of  colour  in  a  stain  unless  the 
test  piece  is  thoroughly  dried.  If  the 
stain  is  not  right,  add  more  water  or  more 
stain  as  is  needed.  Experience  will  tell 
what  stain  to  use  to  match  the  paper  of 
any  given  book. 

To  remove  grease  or  oil  stains,  ether 
may  be  used.  Pour  it  freely  in  a  circle 
round  the  spot,  narrowing  the  circle  gra- 
dually until  the  stain  is  covered.  Then 
apply  a  warm  iron  through  a  piece  of 
blotting-paper. 

Ether  should  only  be  used  in  a  draught 
in  a  well-ventilated  room  on  account  of 

73 


Washing  its  well  -  known  inflammable  and  anaes- 
thetical  properties. 

A  very  dilute  (about  one  per  cent.) 
solution  of  pure  hydrochloric  acid  in  cold 
water  will  be  found  to  take  out  some 
stains  if  the  paper  is  left  in  it  for  some 
hours.  When  the  paper  is  removed  from 
the  solution,  it  must  be  thoroughly  washed 
in  running  water.  It  is  important  that  the 
hydrochloric  acid  used  should  be  pure,  as 
the  commercial  quality  (spirits  of  salts) 
often  contains  sulphuric  acid. 

The  following  recipes  are  quoted  from 
De  r organisation  et  de  F  administration  des 
Bibliotheques,  -par  Jules  Cusin  : — 

To  remove  stains  from  paper  : — "  Mud 
Stains. — To  take  away  these  kinds  of 
stains,  spread  some  soap  jelly  very  evenly 
over  the  stained  places,  and  leave  it  there 
for  thirty  or  forty  minutes,  according  to 
the  depth  of  the  stain.  Then  dip  the 
sheet  in  clean  water,  and  then  having 
spread  it  on  a  perfectly  clean  table,  remove 
the  soap  lightly  with  a  hog's  hair  brush  or 
a  fine  sponge ;  all  the  mud  will  disappear 
at  the  same  time.  Put  the  sheet  into  the 
clear  water  again,  to  get  rid  of  the  last 
trace  of  soap.  Let  it  drain  a  little,  press 
it  lightly  between  two  sheets  of  blotting- 

74 


paper,  and  finish  by  letting  it  dry  slowly     Washing 
in  a  dry  place  in  the  shade. 

"  Stains  of  Tallow,  Stearine,  or  Fat. — To 
take  away  these  stains  cover  them  with 
blotting-paper  and  pass  over  them  a  warm 
flat-iron.  When  the  paper  has  soaked  up 
the  grease,  change  it  and  repeat  the  opera- 
tion until  the  stains  have  been  sufficiently 
removed.  After  that,  touch  both  sides 
of  the  sheets  where  they  have  been  stained 
with  a  brush  dipped  in  essence  of  turpen- 
tine heated  to  boiling-point.  Then  to 
restore  the  whiteness  of  the  paper,  touch 
the  places  which  were  stained  with  a  piece 
of  fine  linen  soaked  in  purified  spirits  of 
wine  warmed  in  the  water-bath.  This 
method  may  also  be  employed  to  get  rid 
of  sealing-wax  stains. 

"  Oil  Stains. — Make  a  mixture  of  500  gr. 
of  soap,  300  gr.  of  clay,  60  gr.  of  quick- 
lime, and  sufficient  water  to  make  it  of  the 
right  consistency,  spread  a  thin  layer  of  this 
on  the  stain,  and  leave  it  there  about  a 
quarter  of  an  hour.  Then  dip  the  sheet 
in  a  bath  of  hot  water ;  take  it  out,  and 
let  it  dry  slowly. 

"  You  can  also  use  the  following  method, 
generally  employed  for  finger-marks  : — 

"  Finger-marks. — These  stains  are  some- 

75 


Washing  times  very  obstinate.  Still  they  can  gene- 
rally be  mastered  by  the  following 
method : — Spread  over  them  a  layer  of 
white  soap  jelly  (savon  blanc  en  gelee),  and 
leave  it  there  for  some  hours.  Then 
remove  this  with  a  fine  sponge  dipped  in 
hot  water,  and  more  often  than  not  all 
the  dirt  disappears  at  the  same  time.  If 
this  treatment  is  not  sufficient,  you  might 
replace  the  soap  jelly  by  soft  soap  (savon 
noir\  but  you  must  be  careful  not  to  leave 
it  long  on  the  printing,  which  might  de- 
compose and  run,  and  that  would  do  more 
harm  than  good." 

Sheets  of  very  old  books  are  best  left 
with  the  stains  of  age  upon  them,  except- 
ing, perhaps,  such  as  can  be  removed  with 
hot  water  or  size.  Nearly  all  stains  can 
be  removed,  but  in  the  process  old  paper 
is  apt  to  lose  more  in  character  than  it 
gains  in  appearance. 

MENDING 

Mending  For  mending  torn  sheets  of  an  old 
book,  some  paper  that  matches  as  nearly 
as  possible  must  be  found.  For  this  pur- 
pose it  is  the  custom  for  bookbinders  to 
collect  quantities  of  old  paper.  If  a  piece 
76 


of  the  same  tone  cannot  be  found,  paper    Mending 
of  similar  texture  and  substance  may  be 
stained  to  match. 

Supposing  a  corner  to  be  missing,  and  a 
piece  of  paper  to  have  been  found  that 
matches  it,  the  torn  page  is  laid  over  the 
new  paper  in  such  a  way  that  the  wire 
marks  on  both  papers  correspond.  Then 
the  point  of  a  folder  should  be  drawn 
along  the  edge  of  the  torn  sheet,  leaving 
an  indented  line  on  the  new  paper.  The 
new  paper  should  then  be  cut  off  about  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  beyond  the  indented  line, 
and  the  edge  carefully  pared  up  to  the 
line.  The  edge  of  the  old  paper  must  be 
similarly  pared,  so  that  the  two  edges  when 
laid  together  will  not  exceed  the  thickness 
of  the  rest  of  the  page.  It  is  well  to  leave 
a  little  greater  overlap  at  the  edges  of  the 
page.  Both  cut  edges  must  then  be  well 
pasted  with  white  paste  and  rubbed  down 
between  blotting-paper.  To  ensure  a  per- 
fectly clean  joint  the  pasted  edge  should 
not  be  touched  with  the  hand,  and  pasting- 
paper,  brushes,  and  paste  must  be  perfectly 
clean. 

In  the  case  of  a  tear  across  the  page, 
if  there  are  any  overlapping  edges,  they 
may  merely  be  pasted  together  and  the 

77 


Mending  end  of  the  tear  at  the  edge  of  the  paper 
strengthened  by  a  small  piece  of  pared 
paper.  If  the  tear  crosses  print,  and  there 
are  no  overlapping  edges,  either  tiny  pieces 
of  pared  paper  may  be  cut  and  laid  across 
the  tear  between  the  lines  of  print,  or 
else  a  piece  of  the  thinnest  Japanese  paper, 
which  is  nearly  transparent,  may  be  pasted 
right  along  the  tear  over  the  print;  in 
either  case  the  mend  should  be  strengthened 
at  the  edge  of  the  page  by  an  additional 
thickness  of  paper.  In  cases  where  the 
backs  of  the  sections  have  been  much 
damaged,  it  will  be  necessary  to  put  a 
guard  the  entire  length,  or  in  the  case  of 
small  holes,  to  fill  them  in  with  pieces  of 
torn  paper.  The  edges  of  any  mend  may, 
with  great  care,  be  scraped  with  a  sharp 
knife  having  a  slight  burr  on  the  under 
side,  and  then  rubbed  lightly  with  a  piece 
of  worn  fine  sand-paper,  or  a  fragment  of 
cuttle-fish  bone.  Care  must  be  taken  not 
to  pare  away  too  much,  and  especially  not 
to  weaken  the  mend  at  the  edges  of  the 
sheet.  As  a  general  rule,  the  new  mend- 
ing paper  should  go  on  the  back  of  a 
sheet. 

Sometimes  it  is  thought  necessary  to 
fill  up  worm-holes  in  the  paper.  This 

78 


may  be  done  by  boiling  down  some  paper  Mending 
in  size  until  it  is  of  a  pulpy  consistency, 
and  a  little  of  this  filled  into  the  worm- 
holes  will  re-make  the  paper  in  those 
places.  It  is  a  very  tedious  operation, 
and  seldom  worth  doing. 

Mending  vellum  is  done  in  much  the 
same  way  as  mending  paper,  excepting 
that  a  little  greater  overlap  must  be  left. 
It  is  well  to  put  a  stitch  of  silk  at  each 
end  of  a  vellum  patch,  as  you  cannot 
depend  on  paste  alone  holding  vellum 
securely.  The  overlapping  edges  must 
be  well  roughed 
up  with  a  knife  to 
make  sure  that  the 

paste     will      stick.   X  X  X  X  X  X  X  I, 

A  cut  in  a  vellum 
page  is  best  mended 
with  fine  silk  with 


a       lacing       stitch  FIG.   18. 

(see  fig.  1 8). 

Mending  is  most  easily  done  on  a  sheet 
of  plate-glass,  of  which  the  edges  and 
corners  have  been  rubbed  down. 


79 


CHAPTER   V 

End   Papers — Leather  Joints — Pressing 
END    PAPERS 

End  Papers  IF  an  old  book  that  has  had  much  wear 
is  examined,  it  will  generally  be  found 
that  the  leaves  at  the  beginning  and  the 
end  have  suffered  more  than  the  rest  of 
the  book.  On  this  ground,  and  also  to 
enable  people  who  must  write  notes  in 
books  to  do  so  with  the  least  injury  to 
the  book,  it  is  advisable  to  put  a  good 
number  of  blank  papers  at  each  end.  As 
these  papers  are  part  of  the  binding,  and 
have  an  important  protective  function  to 
perform,  they  should  be  of  good  quality. 
At  all  times  difficulty  has  been  found  in 
preventing  the  first  and  last  section  of 
the  book,  whether  end  papers  or  not, 
from  dragging  away  when  the  cover  is 
opened,  and  various  devices  have  been 
tried  to  overcome  this  defect.  In  the 
fifteenth  century  strips  of  vellum  (usually 
cut  from  manuscripts)  were  pasted  on  to 
the  back  of  the  book  and  on  the  inside 
80 


of  the  boards,  or  in  some  cases  were  End  Papers 
merely  folded  round  the  first  and  last 
section  and  pasted  on  to  the  covers.  The 
modern,  and  far  less  efficient,  practice  is 
to  "  overcast "  the  first  and  last  sections. 
This  is  objectionable,  because  it  prevents 
the  leaves  from  opening  right  to  the  back, 
and  it  fails  in  the  object  aimed  at,  by 
merely  transferring  the  strain  to  the  back 
of  the  overcast  section. 

In  order  to  make  provision  for  any 
strain  there  may  be  in  opening  the  cover, 
it  is  better  to  adopt  some  such  arrange- 
ment as  shown  in  fig.  19.  In  this  end 
paper  the  zigzag  opens  slightly  in  re- 
sponse to  any  strain. 

The  way  to  make  this  end  paper  is 
to  take  a  folded  sheet  of  paper  a  little 
larger  than  the  book.  Then  with  dividers 
mark  two  points  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
from  the  back  for  the  fold,  and  paste  your 
paste-down  paper,  BB,  up  to  these  points 
(see  fig.  19,  II).  When  the  paste  is  dry, 
fold  back  the  sheet  (Ai)  over  the  paste- 
down  paper,  and  A2  the  reverse  way, 
leaving  the  form  seen  in  fig.  19,  III.  A 
folded  sheet  of  paper  similar  to  A  is 
inserted  at  C  (fig.  19,  V,  H),  and  the 
sewing  passes  through  this.  When  the 
6  81 


End  Papers  book  is  pasted  down  the  leaf  Ai   is  torn 


I 


HI 

Afblded  sheet  of  the  *  *  * 
S^mepaperasAis  it> 
Jerttd  at  C.&  revving- 
goo  through  this  at  F.         F 


Leather  And  Waste  vt  folded  ove-  Bl  xe  E  and  A  folded 
sherr  inserted  at  C-  5evving  goes  through  both  E  and  F. 


V 


off,  and  Bi   pasted  down  on  the  board. 
82 


If  marbled  paper  is  desired,  the  marble  End  Papers 

should  be  "  made,"  that  is,  pasted  on  to 

Bi. 

There  are  considerable  disadvantages  in 
using  marbled  papers,  as  if  they  are  of 
thick  enough  paper  to  help  the  strength 
of  the  binding,  the  "  made  "  sheet  is  very 
stiff,  and  in  a  small  book  is  troublesome. 
On  no  account  should  any  marble  paper 
be  used,  unless  it  is  tough  and  durable. 
The  quality  of  the  paper  of  which  most 
marbled  papers  are  made  is  so  poor,  that 
it  is  unsuitable  for  use  as  end  papers. 
For  most  books  a  self-coloured  paper  of 
good  quality  answers  well  for  the  paste- 
down  sheets. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  leave  end  papers  to 
be  pasted  on  after  the  book  has  been 
forwarded,  as  in  that  case  they  have  little 
constructive  value.  Every  leaf  of  such 
an  end  paper  as  is  described  above  will 
open  right  to  the  back,  and  the  zigzag 
allows  play  for  the  drag  of  the  board. 

Paper  with  a  conventional  pattern 
painted  or  printed  on  it  may  be  used  for 
end  papers.  If  such  a  design  is  simple, 
such  as  a  sprig  repeated  all  over,  or  an 
arrangement  of  stars  or  dots,  it  may  look 
very  well ;  but  over  elaborate  end  papers, 

83 


End  Papers  and  especially  those  that  aim  at  pictorial 
effect,  are  seldom  successful. 

Ends  may  be  made  of  thin  vellum. 
If  so,  unless  the  board  is  very  heavy,  it  is 
best  to  have  leather  joints. 

A  single  leaf  of  vellum  (in  the  place  of 
Bi  and  2,  II,  fig.  19)  should  have  an  edge 
turned  up  into  the  zigzag  with  the  leather 
joint,  and  sewn  through.  Vellum  ends 
must  always  be  sewn,  as  it  is  not  safe  to 
rely  upon  paste  to  hold  them.  They 
look  well,  and  may  be  enriched  by 
tooling.  The  disadvantage  of  vellum  is, 
that  it  has  a  tendency  to  curl  up  if  sub- 
jected to  heat,  and  when  it  contracts  it 
unduly  draws  the  boards  of  the  book. 
For  large  manuscripts,  or  printed  books 
on  vellum,  which  are  bound  in  wooden 
or  other  thick  boards  and  are  clasped, 
thicker  vellum  may  be  used  for  the  ends ; 
that  with  a  slightly  brown  surface  looks 
best.  The  part  that  will  come  into  the 
joint  should  be  scraped  thin  with  a  knife, 
and  a  zigzag  made  of  Japanese  paper. 

Silk  or  other  fine  woven  material  may 
be  used  for  ends.  It  is  best  used  with  a 
leather  joint,  and  may  be  stuck  on  to  the 
first  paper  of  the  end  papers  (Bi,  No.  2, 
fig-  J9)>  and  cut  with  the  book.  The 

84 


glaire  of  the  edge  gilding  will  help  to  stop  End  Papers 
the  edges  fraying  out.  In  attaching  silk 
to  paper,  thin  glue  is  the  best  thing  to 
use ;  the  paper,  not  the  silk,  being  glued. 
Some  little  practice  is  needed  to  get  suffi- 
cient glue  on  the  paper  to  make  the  silk 
stick  all  over,  and  yet  not  to  soil  it. 
When  the  silk  has  been  glued  to  the  paper, 
it  should  be  left  under  a  light  weight  to 
dry.  If  put  in  the  press,  the  glue  may 
be  squeezed  through  and  the  silk  soiled. 

If  the  silk  is  very  thin,  or  delicate  in 
colour,  or  if  it  seems  likely  that  it  will 
fray  out  at  the  edges,  it  is  better  to  turn 
the  edges  in  over  a  piece  of  paper  cut  a 
little  smaller  than  the  page  of  the  book 
and  stick  them  down.  This  forms  a  pad, 
which  may  be  attached  to  the  first  leaf  of 
the  end  papers ;  a  similar  pad  may  be 
made  for  filling  in  the  board. 

Before  using,  the  silk  should  be  damped 
and  ironed  flat  on  the  wrong  side. 

Silk  ends  give  a  book  a  rich  finish,  but 
seldom  look  altogether  satisfactory.  If 
the  silk  is  merely  stuck  on  to  the  first 
end  paper,  the  edges  will  generally  fray 
out  if  the  book  is  much  used.  If  the 
edges  are  turned  in,  an  unpleasantly  thick 
end  is  made. 

85 


LEATHER    JOINTS 

Leather  Leather  joints  are  pieces  of  thin  leather 
Joints  that  are  used  to  cover  the  joints  on  the 
inside  (for  paring,  see  page  154).  They 
add  very  little  strength  to  the  book,  but 
give  a  pleasant  finish  to  the  inside  of  the 
board. 

If  there  are  to  be  leather  joints,  the  end 
papers  are  made  up  without  A  i,  and  the 
edge  of  the  leather  pasted  and  inserted  at 
D,  with  a  piece  of  common  paper  as  a  pro- 
tection (see  fig.  19,  IV).  When  the  paste 
is  dry,  the  leather  is  folded  over  at  E. 

A  piece  of  blotting-paper  may  be  pasted 
on  to  the  inside  of  the  waste  leaf,  leaving 
enough  of  it  loose  to  go  between  the 
leather  joint  and  the  first  sheet  of  the 
end  paper.  This  will  avoid  any  chance 
of  the  leather  joint  staining  or  marking 
the  ends  while  the  book  is  being  bound. 
The  blotting-paper,  o'f  course,  is  taken 
out  with  the  waste  sheet  before  the  joint 
is  pasted  down. 

Joints  may  also  be  made  of  linen  or 
cloth  inserted  in  the  same  way.  A  cloth 
joint  has  greater  strength  than  a  leather 
one,  as  the  latter  has  to  be  very  thin 

86 


in  order   that   the   board   may  shut  pro- 
perly. 

With  leather  or  cloth  joints,  the  sewing 
should  go  through  both  E  and  F. 


Leather 


PRESSING 

While  the  end  papers  are  being  made, 
the  sections  of  the  book  should  be  pressed. 
To  do  this  a  pressing  -  board  is  taken 
which  is  a  little  larger  than  the  book,  and 
a  tin,  covered  with  common  paper,  placed 
on  that,  then  a  few  sections  of  the  book, 
then  another  tin  covered  with  paper,  and 


(± 


FIG.    20. 


then  more  sections,  and  so  on,  taking  care 
that  the  sections  are  exactly  over  one 
another  (see  fig.  20).  A  second  pressing- 
board  having  been  placed  on  the  last  tin, 

87 


Pressing 


Pressing 


FIG.    21. — Standing  Press 


Pressing 


FIG.    22. — French  Standing  Press 


Pressing  the  pile  of  sections,  tins,  and  pressing- 
boards  can  be  put  into  the  standing-press 
and  left  under  pressure  till  next  day. 
Newly  printed  plates  should  be  protected 
by  thin  tissue  paper  while  being  pressed. 
Any  folded  plates  or  maps,  &c.,  or  in- 
serted letters,  must  either  not  be  pressed, 
or  have  tins  placed  on  each  side  of  them 
to  prevent  them  from  indenting  the  ad- 
joining leaves. 

Hand-printed  books,  such  as  the  pub- 
lications of  the  Kelmscott  Press,  should 
have  very  little  pressure,  or  the  "  impres- 
sion "  of  the  print  and  the  surface  of  the 
paper  may  be  injured.  Books  newly 
printed  on  vellum  or  heavily  coloured 
illustrations  should  not  be  pressed  at  all, 
or  the  print  may  "  set  off." 

The  protecting  tissues  on  the  plates  of 
a  book  that  has  been  printed  for  more 
than  a  year  can  generally  be  left  out, 
unless  the  titles  of  the  plates  are  printed 
on  them,  as  they  are  a  nuisance  to  readers 
and  often  get  crumpled  up  and  mark  the 
book. 

In  order  to  make  books  solid,  that  is,  to 
make  the  leaves  lie  evenly  and  closely  to 
one  another,  it  was  formerly  the  custom 
to  beat  books  on  a  "  stone  "  with  a  heavy 

90 


hammer.     This   process  has  been  super-     Pressing 
seded  by  the  rolling-press ;  but  with  the 
admirable  presses  that  are  now  to  be  had, 
simple  pressing  will  be  found  to  be  suf- 
ficient for  the  "  extra  "  binder. 

At  fig.  21  is  shown  an  iron  standing- 
press.  This  is  screwed  down  first  with  a 
short  bar,  and  finally  with  a  long  bar. 
This  form  of  press  is  effective  and  simple, 
but  needs  a  good  deal  of  room  for  the 
long  bar,  and  must  have  very  firm  supports, 
or  it  may  be  pulled  over. 

At  fig.  22  is  shown  a  French  standing- 
press,  in  which  the  pressure  is  applied  by 
a  weighted  wheel,  which  will,  in  the  first 
place,  by  being  spun  round,  turn  the 
screw  until  it  is  tight,  and  give  additional 
pressure  by  a  hammering  action.  This 
press  I  have  found  to  answer  for  all  ordi- 
nary purposes,  and  to  give  as  great  pressure 
as  can  be  got  by  the  iron  standing-press, 
without  any  undue  strain  on  supports  or 
workmen. 

There  are  many  other  forms  of  press 
by  which  great  pressure  can  be  applied, 
some  working  by  various  arrangements  of 
cog-wheels,  screws,  and  levers,  others  by 
hydraulic  pressure. 


91 


CHAPTER   VI 

Trimming  Edges  before  Sewing — Edge  Gilding 
TRIMMING    BEFORE    SEWING 

Trimming  WHEN  the  sheets  come  from  the  press  the 
before  treatment  of  the  edges  must  be  decided 
Sewing  upon,  that  is,  whether  they  are  to  be  en- 
tirely uncut,  trimmed  before  sewing,  or 
cut  in  boards. 

Early  printed  books  and  manuscripts 
should  on  no  account  have  their  edges 
cut  at  all,  and  any  modern  books  of  value 
are  better  only  slightly  trimmed  and  gilt 
before  sewing.  But  for  books  of  refer- 
ence that  need  good  bindings,  on  account 
of  the  wear  they  have  to  withstand,  cut- 
ting in  boards  is  best,  as  the  smooth  edge 
so  obtained  makes  the  leaves  easier  to 
turn  over.  Gilt  tops  and  rough  edges 
give  a  book  a  look  of  unequal  finish. 

If  the  edges  are  to  remain  uncut,  or  be 
cut  "  in  boards "  with  the  plough,  the 
book  will  be  ready  for  "  marking  up  "  as 
soon  as  it  comes  from  the  press ;  but  if  it 
is  to  be  gilt  before  sewing,  it  must  be  first 
trimmed. 

92 


The    sheets     for    trimming    with     end    Trimming 
papers  and  all  plates  inserted  must  first  be      before 
cut  square  at  the  head  against  a  carpen-      Sewlng 
ter's  square  (see  fig.  3 

7).  Then  a  piece 
of  mill-board  may 
be  cut  to  the  size  ^ 

J 

it  is  desired  to  leave 
the  leaves,  and  the 
sections  trimmed  to 
it.  To  do  this  three 
nails  should  be  put 
into  the  covering 
board  through  a 
piece  of  straw-board, 
and  the  back  of  the 
section  slid  along 
nails  i  and  2  until 
it  touches  No.  3  (see  fig.  23). 


FIG.    23. 


The 


board  is  slid  in  the  same  way,  and  any- 
thing projecting  beyond  it  cut  off.  When 
the  under  straw-board  has  become  in- 
conveniently scored  in  the  first  position, 
by  shifting  the  lower  nail  (i)  a  fresh  sur- 
face will  receive  the  cuts.  Fig.  24  is  a 
representation  of  a  simple  machine  that  I 
use  in  my  workshop  for  trimming.  The 
slides  A  A  are  adjustable  to  any  width 
required,  and  are  fixed  by  the  screws  B  B. 

93 


Trimming   The  brass-bound  straight  edge  C  fits  on  to 

before      slots  in  A  A,  and  as  this,  by  the  adjust- 

Sewmg     ment  Of  the   slides,  can  be  fixed  at  any 

distance  from  B  B,  all  sizes  of  books  can 

be  trimmed.     As  by  this  machine  several 

sections  can  be  cut  at  once,  the  time  taken 


FIG.   24. 


is  not  very  much  greater  than  if  the  book 
were  cut  in  the  plough. 

Considerable  judgment  is  required  in 
trimming.  The  edges  of  the  larger  pages 
only,  on  a  previously  uncut  book,  should 
be  cut,  leaving  the  smaller  pages  un- 
touched. Such  uncut  pages  are  called 
"  proof,"  and  the  existence  of  proof  in  a 
bound  book  is  evidence  that  it  has  not 
been  unduly  cut. 

Before  gilding  the  edges  of  the  trimmed 

94 


sections,  any  uncut  folds  that  may  remain    Trimming 
should    be    opened   with    a    folder,   as    if      before 
opened    after   gilding,    they    will   show  a     Sewing 
ragged  white  edge. 


FIG.   25. 


EDGE    GILDING 

To  gild  the  edges  of  trimmed  sections, 
the  book  must  be  "  knocked  up  "  to  the 
fore-edge,  getting  as  many  of  the  short 
leaves  as  possible  to  the  front.  It  is  then 
put  into  the 
"  lying  press," 
with  gilding 
boards  on  each 
side  (see  fig. 
No.  25),  and 
screwed  up 
tightly.  Very  little  scraping  will  be 
necessary,  and  usually  if  well  rubbed 
with  fine  sand-paper,  to  remove  any 
chance  finger-marks  or  loose  fragments  of 
paper,  the  edge  will  be  smooth  enough  to 
gild.  If  the  paper  is  very  absorbent,  the 
edges  must  be  washed  over  with  vellum 
size  and  left  to  dry. 

The  next  process  is  an  application  of 
red  chalk.  For  this  a  piece  of  gilder's 
red  chalk  is  rubbed  down  on  a  stone  with 

95 


Edge 
Gilding 


Edge  water,  making  a  thickish  paste,  and  the 
Gilding  edges  are  well  brushed  with  a  hard  brush 
dipped  in  this  mixture,  care  being  taken 
not  to  have  it  wet  enough  to  run  between 
the  leaves.  Some  gilders  prefer  to  use 
blacklead  or  a  mixture  of  chalk  and  black- 
lead.  A  further  brushing  with  a  dry 
brush  will  to  some  extent  polish  the 
leaves.  It  will  then  be  ready  for  an  ap- 
plication of  glaire.  Before  glairing,  the 
gold  must  be  cut  on  the  cushion  to  the 
width  required  (see  p.  200),  and  may  be 
either  taken  up  on  very  slightly  greased 
paper,  a  gilder's  tip,  or  with  a  piece  of  net 
stretched  on  a  little  frame  (see  fig.  26). 
The  gold  leaf  will  adhere  sufficiently  to 
the  net,  and  can  be  readily  released  by  a 
light  breath  when  it  is  exactly  over  the 
proper  place  on  the  edge. 

When  the  gold  is  ready,  the  glaire 
should  be  floated  on  to  the  edge  with  a 
soft  brush,  and  the  gold  spread  evenly 
over  it  and  left  until  dry ;  that  is,  in  a 
workshop  of  ordinary  temperature,  for 
about  an  hour.  The  edge  is  then  lightly 
rubbed  with  a  piece  of  leather  that  has 
been  previously  rubbed  on  beeswax,  and 
is  ready  for  burnishing.  It  is  best  to  com- 
mence burnishing  through  a  piece  of  thin 
96 


slightly  waxed  paper  to  set  the  gold,  and 
afterwards    the     burnisher    can    be    used 


Edge 
Gilding 


FIG. 


directly  on  the  edge.  A  piece  of  blood- 
stone ground  so  as  to  have  no  sharp  edges 
(see  fig.  27)  makes  a  good  burnisher. 

There    are    several    different    prepara- 
tions used  for  gilding  edges.     One  part  of 


FIG.    27. 

beaten  up  white  of  egg  with  four  parts  of 
water  left  to  stand  for  a  day  and  strained 
will  be  found  to  answer  well. 

7  97 


Edge  After  the  fore-edge  is  gilt  the  same  opera- 

Gilding  tion  is  repeated  at  the  head  and  tail.  As 
it  is  desirable  to  have  the  gilding  at  the 
head  as  solid  as  possible,  rather  more 
scraping  is  advisable  here,  or  the  head 
may  be  left  to  be  cut  with  a  plough  and 
gilt  in  boards. 


CHAPTER   VII 

Marking  up — Sewing — Materials  for  Sewing 


MARKING    UP 


Marking  up  THIS  is  drawing  lines  across  the  back  of 
the  sections  to  show  the  sewer  the  position 
of  the  sewing  cords. 

Marking  up  for  flexible  sewing  needs 
care  and  judgment,  as  on  it  depends  the 
position  of  the  bands  on  the  back  of  the 
bound  book.  Nearly  all  books  look  best 
with  five  bands,  but  very  large,  thinnish 
folios  may  have  six,  and  a  very  small,  thick 
book  may  look  better  with  four.  Gene- 
rally speaking,  five  is  the  best  number.  In 
marking  up  trimmed  sheets  for  flexible 
sewing,  the  length  of  the  back  should  be 
divided  from  the  head  into  six  portions, 

98 


five  equal,  and  one  at  the  tail  slightly  Marking  up 
longer.  From  the  points  so  arrived  at, 
strong  pencil  lines  should  be  made  across 
the  back  with  a  carpenter's  square  as 
guide,  the  book  having  been  previously 
knocked  up  between  pressing-boards,  and 
placed  in  the  lying  press.  It  is  important 
that  the  head  should  be  knocked  up  ex- 
actly square,  as  otherwise  the  bands  will 
be  found  to  slope  when  the  book  is  bound. 
In  the  case  of  a  book  which  is  to  be  cut 
and  gilt  in  boards,  before  marking  up  it 
will  be  necessary  to  decide  how  much  is 
to  be  cut  off,  and  allowance  made,  or  the 
head  and  tail  division  of  the  back  will, 
when  cut,  be  too  small.  It  must  also  be 
remembered  that  to  the  height  of  the 
pages  the  amount  of  the  "  squares  "  will 
be  added. 

About  a  quarter  of  an  inch  from  either 
end  of  the  back  of  a  trimmed  book,  and  a 
little  more  in  the  case  of  one  that  is  to  be 
cut  in  boards,  a  mark  should  be  made  for 
the  "  kettle  "  or  "  catch  "  stitch.  This 
may  be  slightly  sawn  in,  but  before  using 
the  saw,  the  end  papers  are  removed.  If 
these  were  sawn,  the  holes  would  show  in 
the  joint  when  the  ends  are  pasted  down. 

If  the  book  is  to  be  sewn  on  double 

99 


Marking  up  cords,  or  on  slips  of  vellum  or  tape,  two 
lines  will  be  necessary  for  each  band. 

It  has  become  the  custom  to  saw  in  the 
backs  of  books,  and  to  sink  the  bands  into 
the  saw  cuts,  using  "  hollow  backs,"  and 
putting  false  bands  to  appear  when  bound. 
This  is  a  degenerate  form,  to  which  is  due 
much  of  the  want  of  durability  of  modern 
bindings.  If  the  bands  are  not  to  show 
on  the  back,  it  is  better  to  sew  on  tapes  or 
strips  of  vellum  than  to  use  sawn-in  string 
bands. 

SEWING 

Sewing  The  sewing-frame  used  by  bookbinders 
is  practically  the  same  now  as  is  shown  in 
prints  of  the  early  sixteenth  century,  and 
probably  dates  from  still  earlier  times.  It 
consists  of  a  bed  with  two  uprights  and 
a  crossbar,  which  can  be  heightened  or 
lowered  by  the  turning  of  wooden  nuts 
working  on  a  screw  thread  cut  in  the 
uprights  (see  fig.  29). 

To  set  up  for  sewing,  as  many  loops 
of  cord,  called  "  lay  cords,"  as  there  are 
to  be  bands,  are  threaded  on  to  the  cross 
piece,  and  to  these,  by  a  simple  knot, 
shown  at  fig.  28,  cords  are  fastened 
form  the  bands.  The  "  lay  cords " 


Sewing 


FIG.    28. 


can  be  used  again  and   again  until  worn 
out. 

101 


Sewing  To  fasten  the  cord  below,  a  key  is 
taken  (see  fig.  28)  and  held  below  the 
press  by  the  right  hand ;  the  cord  is  then 
pulled  up  round  it  by  the  left,  and  held 
in  position  on  the  key  by  the  first  finger 
of  the  right  hand.  The  key  is  then 
turned  over,  winding  up  a  little  of  the 
string,  and  the  prongs  slipped  over  the 
main  cord.  It  is  then  put  through  the 
slit  in  the  bed  of  the  sewing-press,  with 
the  prongs  away  from  the  front.  The 
cord  is  then  cut  off,  and  the  same  opera- 
tion repeated  for  each  band.  When  all 
the  bands  have  been  set  up,  the  book  is 
laid  against  them,  and  they  are  moved 
to  correspond  with  the  marks  previously 
made  on  the  back  of  the  book,  care  being 
taken  that  they  are  quite  perpendicular. 
If  they  are  of  the  same  length  and  evenly 
set  up,  on  screwing  up  the  crossbar  they 
should  all  tighten  equally. 

It  will  be  found  to  be  convenient  to 
set  up  the  cords  as  far  to  the  right  hand 
of  the  press  as  possible,  as  then  there 
will  be  room  for  the  sewer's  left  arm  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  left  hand  upright. 

A  roll  of  paper  that  will  exactly  fill 
the  slot  in  the  sewing-frame  is  pushed  in 
in  front  of  the  upright  cords  to  steady 

IO2 


them  and  ensure  that  they  are  all  in  the     Sewing 
same  plane. 

When  the  sewing-frame  is  ready,  with 
the  cords  set  up  and  adjusted,  the  book 
must  be  collated  to  make  sure  that  neither 
sheets  nor  plates  have  been  lost  or  mis- 
placed during  the  previous  operations. 
Plates  need  special  care  to  see  that  the 
guards  go  properly  round  the  sheets  next 
them. 

The  top  back  corner,  on  front  and 
back  waste  end  paper,  should  be  marked. 
When  this  has  been  done,  and  all  is  found 
to  be  in  order,  the  book  is  laid  on  a 
pressing-board  behind  the  sewing-frame, 
the  fore-edge  towards  the  sewer,  and  the 
front  end  paper  uppermost.  As  it  is 
difficult  to  insert  the  needle  into  a  section 
placed  on  the  bed  of  the  sewing-frame, 
it  will  be  found  convenient  to  sew  upon 
a  largish  pressing-board,  which  will  lie  on 
the  bed  of  the  frame,  and  may  have  small 
catches  to  prevent  it  from  shifting.  When 
the  board  is  in  place,  the  first  section  (end 
paper)  is  taken  in  the  left  hand  and 
turned  over,  so  that  the  marks  on  the 
back  come  in  the  proper  places  against 
the  strings.  The  left  hand  is  inserted 
into  the  place  where  the  sewing  is  to  be, 

103 


Sewing     and   with   the    right    hand   a   needle    and 


FIG.   29. 


thread  is  passed  through  the  kettle  stitch 
104 


mark    (see    fig.    29).     It    is    grasped    by     Sewing 

the  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  is  passed  out 

through   the   back   at   the   first   mark  on 

the    left-hand    side    of   the    first   upright 

cord,  and  pulled  tight,  leaving  a,  loose  end 

of  thread  at  the  kettle  stitch.     Then  with 

the  right  hand  it  is  inserted  again  in  the 

same   place,   but   from   the  other  side  of 

the  cord,  and  so  on  round  all  five  bands, 

and  out  again  at  the  kettle   stitch  mark 

at    the    tail,  using   right    and    left    hands 


alternately.  The  centre  of  the  next  sec- 
tion is  then  found,  and  it  is  sewn  in  the 
same  way  from  tail  to  head,  the  thread 
being  tied  to  the  loose  end  hanging  from 
the  first  kettle  stitch.  Another  section 
is  laid  on  and  sewn,  but  when  the  kettle 
stitch  is  reached,  the  under  thread  is 
caught  up  in  the  way  shown  in  fig.  30. 
These  operations  are  repeated  through- 
out the  whole  book.  If  the  back  seems 
likely  to  swell  too  much,  the  sections  can 

105 


Sewing  be  lightly  tapped  down  with  a  loaded 
stick  made  for  the  purpose,  care  being 
taken  not  to  drive  the  sections  inwards, 
as  it  is  difficult  to  get  such  sections  out 
again.  When  all  the  sheets  and  the  last 
end  paper  have  been  sewn  on,  a  double 
catch  stitch  is  made,  and  the  end  cut  off. 
This  method  is  known  as  flexible  sewing 
"  all  along." 

When   one   needle    full     of    thread    is 
exhausted,    another    is    tied    on,    making 
practically     a     con- 
tinuous    length     of 
thread      going      all 
along    each    section 
and     round     every 
band.   The  weaver's 
j-t     \  I^K         knot     is     the     best 

2    \3  2      \3     lengths    of    thread. 

FIG.  31.  A    simple    way    of 

tying  it  is  shown  at 

fig.  3 1 .  A  simple  slip  knot  is  made  in  the 
end  of  the  new  thread  and  put  over  the  end 
of  the  old,  and,  on  being  pulled  tight,  the 
old  thread  should  slip  through,  as  shewn 
at  B.  The  convenience  of  this  knot  is, 
that  by  its  use  a  firm  attachment  can  be 
made  quite  close  up  to  the  back  of  the 
106 


book.  This  is  a  great  advantage,  as  Sewing 
if  the  knot  is  made  at  some  distance 
from  the  back,  it  will  have  to  be  dragged 
through  the  section  two  or  three  times, 
instead  of  only  once.  The  knot,  after 
having  been  made,  must  be  pulled  inside 
the  section,  and  remain  there.  Consider- 
able judgment  is  required  in  sewing.  If 
a  book  is  sewn  too  loosely,  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  bind  it  firmly ;  and  if  too 
tightly,  especially  if  the  kettle  stitches 
have  been  drawn  too  tight,  the  thread 
may  break  in  "  backing,"  and  the  book 
have  to  be  resewn. 

One  way  to  avoid  having  too  much 
swelling  in  the  back  of  a  book  consisting 
of  a  great  many  very  thin  sections  is  to 
sew  "  two  sheets  on."  In  this  form  of 
sewing  two  sections  at  a  time  are  laid  on 
the  sewing-frame.  The  thread  is  inserted 
at  the  "  kettle  stitch  "  of  the  lower  sec- 
tion, and  brought  out  as  usual  at  the  first 
cord,  but  instead  of  being  reinserted  into 
the  lower  section,  it  is  passed  into  the 
upper  one,  and  so  on,  alternately  passing 
into  the  upper  and  lower  sections.  This 
will  give,  if  there  are  five  bands,  three 
stitches  in  each  section  instead  of  six,  as 
there  would  be  if  the  sewing  were  "  all 

107 


Sewing  along,"  lessening  the  thread,  consequently 
the  swelling  by  half.  It  is  usual  to  sew 
the  first  and  last  few  sections  "  all  along." 

The  common  method  of  sewing  is  to 
make  saw  cuts  in  the  back,  in  which  thin 
cords  can  be  sunk,  and  the  thread  merely 
passes  behind  them  and  not  round  them, 
as  in  flexible  sewing.  This  method, 
although  very  quick  and  cheap,  is  not  to 
be  recommended,  on  account  of  the  injury 
done  to  the  backs  of  the  sections  by  the 
saw,  and  because  the  glue  running  into 
the  saw  cuts  is  apt  to  make  the  back  stiff, 
and  to  prevent  the  book  from  opening 
right  to  the  back.  Indeed,  were  a  sawn-in 
book  to  open  right  to  the  back,  as  it  is 
expected  a  flexibly-sewn  book  will  do, 
showing  the  sewing  along  the  centre  of 
each  section,  the  saw  marks  with  the  band 
inserted  would  show,  and  be  a  serious 
disfigurement. 

Mediaeval  books  were  usually  sewn  on 
double  cords  or  strips  of  leather,  and  the 
headband  was  often  sewn  at  the  same 
time,  as  shown  at  fig.  32,  A.  This  is  an 
excellent  method  for  very  large  books 
with  heavy  sections,  and  is  specially  suit- 
able for  large  vellum  manuscripts,  in  many 
of  which  the  sections  are  very  thick.  An 

108 


advantage  of  this  method  is,  that  the  twist  Sewing 
round  the  double  cord  virtually  makes  a 
knot  at  every  band,  and  should  a  thread 
at  any  place  break,  there  is  no  danger  of 
the  rest  of  the  thread  coming  loose.  This 
is  the  only  mode  of  sewing  by  which  a 
thread  runs  absolutely  from  end  to  end  of 
the  sections.  The  headband  sewn  at  the 
same  time,  and  so  tied  down  in  every  sec- 
tion, is  firmer  and  stronger  than  if  worked 
on  in  the  way  now  usual.  In  the  fif- 
teenth century  it  was  the  custom  to  lace 
the  ends  of  the  headbands  into  the  boards 
in  the  same  way  as  the  other  bands.  This 
method,  while  giving  additional  strength 
at  the  head  and  tail,  and  avoiding  the 
somewhat  unfinished  look  of  the  cut-off 
ends  of  the  modern  headband,  is,  on  the 
whole,  of  doubtful  advantage,  as  it  is 
necessary  to  cut  the  "  turn  in "  at  the 
point  where  strength  in  the  leather  is 
much  wanted. 

At  fig.  32  is  shown  in  section  the  three 
methods  of  sewing  mentioned.  A  is  the 
old  sewing  round  double  bands ;  with  the 
headbands  worked  at  the  same  time  with 
the  same  thread ;  B  is  the  modern  flexible 
sewing,  and  C  the  common  sawn-in  method. 

Books  that  are  very  thin  or  are  to  be 

109 


Sewing 


«• 


ABC 

FIG.    32. 


bound  in  vellum,  are  best  sewn  on  tapes  or 
vellum  slips.  The  easiest  way  to  set  up 
the  sewing  -  frame  for 
such  sewing  is  to  sling 
a  piece  of  wood 
through  two  of  the  lay 
cords,  and  to  pin  one 
end  of  the  vellum  or  tape 
band  round  this,  pull  the 
other  end  tight,  and  se- 
cure it  with  a  drawing- 
pin  underneath  the 
frame.  The  sewing,  in 

o> 

the     case    of    such    flat 

bands,    would     not    go 

round,    but  only  across 

them.     To  avoid  undue 

looseness,    every     three 

or  four  threads  may  be 

caught   up   at   the  back   of  the  band,  as 

shown  in  fig.  33. 


Sewing 


FIG. 


MATERIALS    FOR    SEWING 

The  cord  used  should  be  of  the  best    Materials 
hemp,  specially  made  with  only  two  strands   for  Sewing 
of  very  long  fibres  to  facilitate  fraying  out. 
For  very  large  books  where  a  double  cord 
is  to  be  .used,  the  best  water  line  will  be 

in 


Materials  found  to  answer,  care  being  taken  to  select 
for  Sewing  that  which  can  be  frayed  out.  If  tape  is 
used  it  should  be  unbleached,  such  as  the 
sailmakers  use.  Thread  should  also  be  un- 
bleached, as  the  unnecessary  bleaching  of 
most  bookbinder's  sewing-thread  seems  to 
cause  it  to  rot  in  a  comparatively  short 
time.  Silk  of  the  best  quality  is  better 
than  any  thread.  The  ligature  silk,  un- 
dyed,  as  used  by  surgeons,  is  perhaps  the 
strongest  material,  and  can  be  had  in 
various  thicknesses.  It  is  impossible  to 
pay  too  great  attention  to  the  selection  of 
sewing  materials,  as  the  permanency  of  the 
binding  depends  on  their  durability.  The 
rebinding  of  valuable  books  is  at  best  a 
necessary  evil,  and  anything  that  makes 
frequent  rebinding  necessary,  is  not  only 
objectionable  on  account  of  the  cost  in- 
volved, but  because  it  seriously  shortens 
the  life  of  the  book. 

Experience  is  required  to  judge  what 
thickness  of  thread  to  use  for  any  given 
book.  If  the  sections  are  very  thin,  a  thin 
thread  must  be  used,  or  the  "  swelling  "  of 
the  back  caused  by  the  additional  thick- 
ness of  the  thread  in  that  part  will  be 
excessive,  and  make  the  book  unmanage- 
able in  "  backing."  On  the  other  hand, 

112 


if  the  sections  are  large,  and  a  too  thin    Materials 

thread  is  used,  there  will  not  be  enough  for  Sewing 

swelling  to  make  a  firm  "joint."     Broadly 

speaking,  when  there   are  a  great   many 

very    thin    sections,   the    thinnest    thread 

may  be  used ;  and  coarser  thread  may  be 

used   when   the   sections    are    thicker,   or 

fewer  in  number.     In   the  case  of  large 

manuscripts  on  vellum   it  is  best  to  use 

very  thick  silk,  or  even  catgut.     Vellum 

is  so  tough  and  durable,  that  any  binding 

of  a  vellum   book  should  be  made  as  if 

it  were  expected  to  last  for  hundreds  of 

years. 

In  selecting  the  thickness  of  cord  for  a 
book,  some  judgment  is  required.  On  an 
old  book  the  bands  are  best  made  rather 
prominent  by  the  use  of  thick  cord,  but 
the  exact  thickness  to  be  used  is  a  matter 
for  taste  and  experience  to  decide. 

A  very  thick  band  on  a  small  book  is 
clumsy,  while  a  very  thin  band  on  the  back 
of  a  heavy  book  suggests  weakness,  and  is 
therefore  unsightly. 

In  bindings  of  early  printed  books  and 
manuscripts  an  appearance  of  great  strength 
is  better  than  extreme  neatness. 

When  the  sewing  is  completed,  the  cords 
are  cut  off  close  to  the  lay  cords,  and  then 
8  113 


Materials    the  keys  will  be  loose  enough  to  be  easily 
for  Sewing  removed.     The  knots  remaining  on  the 

lay  bands  are  removed,  and  the  keys  slung 

through  one  of  them. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

Fraying  out  Slips — Glueing  up — Rounding 
and  Backing 

FRAYING    OUT    SLIPS    AND    GLUEING    UP 

Fraying  out  AFTER  sewing,  the  book  should  be  looked 

Slips  and    through  to  see  that  all  sheets  and  plates 

Glueing  up  nave  Deen  caught  by  the  thread,  and  special 

attention  should  be  given  to  end  papers  to 

see  that  the  sewing  lies  evenly. 

The  ends  of  the  cords  should  next  be 
cut  off  to  within  about  two  inches  of  the 
book  on  each  side,  and  the  free  portions 
frayed  out.  If  proper  sewing  cord  is  used, 
this  will  be  found  to  be  very  easily  done, 
if  a  binder's  bodkin  is  first  inserted  be- 
tween the  two  strands,  separating  them, 
and  then  again  in  the  centre  of  each  sepa- 
rated strand  to  still  further  straighten  the 
fibres  (see  fig.  34). 

The  fraying  out  of  the  thick  cord  re- 
114 


commended   for   heavy   books  is  a  more  Fraying  out 

difficult  operation,  but  with  a  little  trouble    sliPs  and 

the   fibres   of-  any   good  ^  Glueing  UP 

cord  can  be  frayed  out. 

Vellum    or    tape    bands 

will  only  require  cutting 

off,    leaving    about    two 

inches  free  on  each  side. 

The    free    parts    of    the 

bands  are  called  slips. 

The  book  is  now  FIG. 
ready  for  glueing  up. 
A  piece  of  waste  mill-board  or  an  old 
cloth  cover  is  put  on  each  side  over  the 
slips,  and  the  book  knocked  up  squarely 
at  the  back  and  head.  Then  it  is  lowered 
into  the  lying  press  and  screwed  up, 
leaving  the  back  with  the  protecting 
boards  projecting  about  three  -  quarters 
of  an  inch.  If  the  back  has  too  much 
swelling  in  it  or  is  spongy,  it  is  better  to 
leave  the  slips  on  one  side  free  and  to  pull 
them  as  tight  as  possible  while  the  book  is 
held  in  the  press,  or  a  knocking-down  iron 
may  be  placed  on  one  side  of  the  project- 
ing back  and  the  other  side  tapped  with 
the  backing  hammer  to  make  the  sections 
lie  close  to  one  another,  and  then  the  slips 
pulled  straight  (fig.  35).  The  back  must 

"5 


Fraying  out  now  be  glued.  The  glue  for  this  opera- 
Slips  and  tion  must  be  hot,  and  not  too  thick.  It 

Glueing  up  js  very  important  that  it  should  be  worked 
well  between  the  sections  with  the  brush, 
and  it  is  well  after  it  has  been  applied  to 
rub  the  back  with  a  finger  or  folder  to 
make  quite  sure  that  the  glue  goes  be- 
tween every  section  for  its  entire  length. 


FIG.  35. 

If  the  book  is  too  tightly  screwed  up  in 
the  press,  the  glue  is  apt  to  remain  too 
much  on  the  surface ;  and  if  not  tightly 
enough,  it  may  penetrate  too  deeply  be- 
tween the  sections.  If  the  glue  is  thick, 
or  stringy,  it  may  be  diluted  with  hot 
water  and  the  glue-brush  rapidly  spun 
116 


round  in  the  glue-pot   to  break  it  up  and  Fraying  out 
to  make  it  work  freely.  Slips  and 

Very  great  care  is  needed  to  see  that  Gluemg  UP 
the  head   of  a  previously  trimmed  book 
is  knocked  up  exactly  square  before  the 
back  is  glued,  for  if  it  is  not,  it  will  be 
very  difficult  to  get  it  even  afterwards. 


ROUNDING    AND    BACKING 

The  amount  of  rounding  on  the  back    Rounding 
of  a  book  should  be  determined  by  the        ^ 
necessities  of  the  case ;  that  is  to  say,  a     Backin§ 
back  that  has,  through  guarding,  or  excess 
of  sewing,  a  tendency  to  be  round,  is  best 
not   forced    to    be   flat,   and  a   back  that 
would  naturally  be  flat,  is  best  not  forced 
to  be  unduly  round.     A  very  round  back 
is  objectionable  where  it  can  be  avoided, 
because  it  takes  up  so  much  of  the  back 
margins  of  the  sheets,  and  is  apt  to  make 
the  book  stiff  in  opening.     On  the  other 
hand,  a  back  that  is  quite  flat  has  to  be 
lined  up  stiffly,  or  it  may  become  concave 
with  use. 

The  method  of  rounding  is  to  place  the 
book  with  the  back  projecting  a  little 
over  the  edge  of  the  press  or  table,  then 
to  draw  the  back  over  towards  the  work- 

117 


Rounding   man,  and,  while  in  this  position,  to  tap  it 

and        carefully    with    a    hammer    (see    fig.  36). 

Backing     This    is    repeated    on    the  other   side   of 

the  book,  and,  if  properly  done,  will  give 


£y 


the  back  an  even,  convex  form  that  should 
be  in  section,  a  portion  of  a  circle. 
Rounding  and  backing  are  best  done  .after 
the  glue  has  ceased  to  be  tacky,  but  before 
it  has  set  hard. 
118 


Backing  is  perhaps  the  most  difficult  and    Rounding 
important  operation  in  forwarding.     The        and 
sewing  threads  in  the  back  cause  that  part     Backing 
to  be  thicker  than  the  rest  of  the  book. 
Thus    in    a    book    with    twenty    sections 
there  will  be  in  the  back,  in  addition  to 


2 


FIG.    37. 


the  thickness  of  the  paper,  twenty  thick- 
nesses of  thread. 

If  the  boards  were  laced  on  to  the  book 
without  rounding  or  backing,  and  the 
book  were  pressed,  the  additional  thick- 
ness of  the  back,  having  to  go  somewhere, 
would  cause  it  to  go  either  convex  or 
concave,  or  else  perhaps  to  crease  up 

119 


FIG.  38. 


Rounding   (see   fig.   37).     The   object    of  rounding 
and        is    to    control    the    distribution    of  this 
Backing     swelling,  and  to  make  the  back  take  an 
even  and  permanently  convex  form. 

If  the  boards  were  merely  laced  on  after 
rounding,  there  would  be  a  gap  between 
the    square    ends    of    the 
board  and  the  edge  of  the 
back  (see  fig.  38),  though 
the    convexity    and    even 
curve  of  the  back  would 
be  to  some  extent  assured. 
What  is  done  in  backing 
is  to  make  a  groove,  into 
which    the    edges    of  the 
board  will  fit  neatly,  and  to  hammer  the 
backs   of  the   sections   over  one  another 
from  the  centre  outwards  on  both  sides 
to    form     the     "groove,"     to 
ensure  that  the  back  shall  re- 
turn  to   the   same    form    after 
the  book  has  been  opened. 

To  back  the  book,  back- 
ing boards  are  placed  on  each 
side  (leaving  the  slips  outside) 
a  short  distance  below  the  edge  of  the 
back  (fig.  39).  The  amount  to  leave 
here  must  be  decided  by  the  thickness  of 
the  boards  to  be  used.  When  the  back- 

I2O 


ing  boards  are  in  position,  the  book  and 
boards  must  be  carefully  lowered  into  the 
lying  press  and  screwed  up  very  tight, 
great  care  being  taken  to  see  that  the 
boards  do  not  slip,  and  that  the  book  is 
put  in  evenly.  Even  the  most  experienced 
forwarder  will  sometimes  have  to  take  a 
book  out  of  the  press  two  or  three  times 


FIG.  40. 


before  he  gets  it  in  quite  evenly  and 
without  allowing  the  boards  to  slip. 
Unless  the  back  has  a  perfectly  even  curve 
when  put  in  the  press  for  backing,  no 
amount  of  subsequent  hammering  will  put 
it  permanently  right. 

The  backs  of  the  sections  should  be 
evenly  fanned  out  one  over  the  other 
from  the  centre  outwards  on  both  sides. 

121 


Rounding 

and 
Backing 


Rounding 

and 
Backing 


This  is  done  by  side  strokes  of  the 
hammer,  in  fact  by  a  sort  of  "  riveting  " 
blow,  and  not  by  a  directly  crushing  blow 
(see  fig.  41,  in  which  the  arrows  show  the 
direction  of  the  hammer  strokes).  If  the 
sections  are  not  evenly  fanned  out  from 


FIG.   41. 


the  centre,  but  are  either  zigzagged  by 
being  crushed  by  direct  blows  of  the  ham- 
mer, as  shown  in  fig.  42,  A,  or  are  un- 
evenly fanned  over  more  to  one  side  than 
the  other,  as  shown  in  fig.  42,  B,  the  back, 
although  it  may  be  even  enough  when 
first  done,  will  probably  become  uneven 

122 


with  use.     A  book  in  which  the  sections    Rounding 
have  been  crushed  down,  as  at  fig.  42,  A,        and 

Backing 


FIG.   42. 


will  be  disfigured  inside  by  creases  in  the 
paper. 


FIG.   43.  FIG.   44. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  a  very 

123 


Rounding    heavy   hammer  is   necessary   for   backing 

and        any  but  the  largest  books.      For  flexible 
pi' 
Backing     books    a    hammer   with    a   comparatively 

small  face  should  be  used,  as  by  its  use 
the  book  can  be  backed  without  flattening 
the  bands.  It  is  well  to  have  a  hammer 
head  of  the  shape  shown  in  fig.  43.  By 
using  the  thin  end,  the  force  of  a  com- 
paratively light  blow,  because  concen- 
trated on  a  small  surface,  is  effective. 

At  fig.  44  is  shown  an  ordinary  backing 
hammer. 


CHAPTER  IX 

Cutting  and  Attaching  Boards — Cleaning  off  Back — 
Pressing 


Boards 


CUTTING    AND    ATTACHING    BOARDS 

Cutting  and  THE  first  quality  of  the  best  black  board 
Attaching    macje  from  old  rope  is  the  best  to  use  for 
"extra"  binding.     It  will  be  found  to  be 
very  hard,  and  not  easily  broken  or  bent 
at  the  corners.     In  selecting  the  thickness 
suitable    for    any    given    book,    the    size 
and  thickness  of  the  volume   should  be 
taken   into    account.      The    tendency    of 
most  modern  binders  is  to  use  a  rather 
124 


over  thick  board,  perhaps  with  a  view  to  Cutting  and 
bulk  out  the  volume.  For  manuscripts,  .Attaching 
or  other  books  on  vellum,  it  is  best  to 
use  wooden  boards,  which  should  be 
clasped.  From  their  stability  they  form 
a  kind  of  permanent  press,  in  which  the 
vellum  leaves  are  kept  flat.  In  a  damp 
climate  like  that  of  England,  vellum, 
absorbing  moisture  from  the  atmosphere, 
soon  cockles  up  unless  it  is  held  tightly 
in  some  way ;  and  when  it  is  once  cockled, 
the  book  cannot  be  made  to  shut  pro- 
perly, except  with  very  special  treatment. 
Then  also  dust  and  damp  have  ready 
access  to  the  interstices  of  the  crinkled 
pages,  resulting  in  the  disfigurement  so 
well  known  and  so  deplored  by  all  lovers 
of  fine  books. 

For  large  books  a  "  made  "  board,  that 
is,  two  boards  pasted  together,  is  better 
than  a  single  board  of  the  same  thickness. 
In  making  boards  a  thin  and  a  thick  board 
should  be  pasted  together,  the  thin  board 
to  go  nearest  the  book.  It  will  not  be 
necessary  to  put  a  double  lining  on  the 
inside  of  such  boards,  as  a  thin  board  will 
always  draw  a  thick  one. 

If  mill-boards  are  used  they  are  first 
cut  roughly  to  size  with  the  mill-board 

125 


Cutting  and  shears,  screwed  up  in  the  "  lying  "  press. 

Attaching    The  straight  arm  of  the  shears  is  the  one 

Boards      to  £x  m  tne  presS)  for  Jf  the  bent  arm  be 

undermost,  the    knuckles    are   apt   to  be 


FIG. 


severely  bruised  against  the  end.  A  better 
way  of  fixing  the  shears  is  shown  at  fig.  45. 
Any  blacksmith  will  bend  the  arm  of  the 
shears  and  make  the  necessary  clips.  This 
method  saves  trouble  and  considerable 
126 


wear  and  tear  to  the  "  lying "  press.  Cutting  and 
Where  a  great  many  boards  are  needed,  Attaching 
they  may  be  quickly  cut  in  a  board 
machine,  but  for  "  extra "  work  they 
should  be  further  trimmed  in  the  plough, 
in  the  same  way  as  those  cut  by  the 
shears.  After  the  boards  have  been 
roughly  cut  to  size,  they  should  have  one 
edge  cut  straight  with  the  plough.  To 
do  this  one  or  two  pairs  of  boards  are 
knocked  up  to  the  back  and  inserted  in 
the  cutting  side  of  the  press,  with  those 
edges  projecting  which  are  to  be  cut  off, 
and  behind  them,  as  a  "  cut  against,"  a 
board  protected  by  a  waste  piece  of  mill- 
board. 

The  plough,  held  by  the  screw  and 
handle,  and  guided  by  the  runners  on  the 
press,  is  moved  backwards  and  forwards. 
A  slight  turn  of  the  screw  at  each  move- 
ment brings  the  knife  forward.  In  cutting 
mill-boards  which  are  very  hard,  the  screw 
should  be  turned  very  little  each  time. 
If  press  and  plough  are  in  proper  order, 
that  part  of  the  board  which  projects 
above  the  cheek  of  the  press  should  be 
cut  off,  leaving  the  edges  perfectly  square 
and  straight.  If  the  edge  of  the  press  has 
been  damaged,  or  is  out  of  "  truth,"  a 

127 


Cutting  and  cutting  board  may  be  used  between  the 
Attaching   cheek  of  the  press  and  the  board  to  be 

Boards 


FIG.  46. — Lying  or  Cutting  Press 

cut,  making  a  true  edge  for  the  knife  to 
run  on. 
128 


Boards 


The  position  of  the  plough  on  the  press  Cutting  and 
is  shown  at  fig.  46.     The  side  of  the  press    Attaching 
with  runners  should  be  reserved  for  cut- 
ting,  the   other   side    used    for   all   other 
work. 

The  plough  knife  for  mill-boards  should 
not  be  ground  at  too  acute  an  angle,  or 
the     edge    will     most    likely 
break  away  at   the   first   cut. 
The  shape  shown   at  fig.  47 
is  suitable.     The  knife  should 
be    very    frequently    ground, 
as  it  soon  gets  blunt,  which 
adds  greatly  to  the  labour  of 
cutting. 

After  an  edge  has  been 
cut,  each  side  should  be  well 
rubbed  with  a  folder  to  smooth  down 
any  burr  left  by  the  plough  knife. 
Then  a  piece  of  common  paper  with 
one  edge  cut  straight  is  pasted  on  to 
one  side  of  the  board,  with  the  straight 
edge  exactly  up  to  the  cut  edge  of  the 
board.  Then  a  piece  of  paper  large 
enough  to  cover  both  sides  of  the  board 
is  pasted  round  it,  and  well  rubbed  down 
at  the  cut  edge.  After  having  been  lined, 
the  boards  are  nipped  in  the  press  to 
ensure  that  the  lining  paper  shall  stick. 
9  129 


FIG.   47. 


Cutting  and  They  are  stood  up  to  dry,  with  the  doubly 
Attaching  lined  side  outwards.  The  double  paper 
Boards  js  intended  to  warp  the  board  slightly  to 
that  side,  to  compensate  for  the  pull  of 
the  leather  when  the  book  is  covered.  If 
the  board  is  a  double  one,  a  single  lining 
paper  will  be  sufficient,  the  thinner  board 
helping  to  draw  the  thicker.  The  paste 
for  lining  boards  must  be  fairly  thin,  and 
very  well  beaten  up  so  as  to  be  free  from 
lumps.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
that  the  lining  papers  should  stick  pro- 
perly, for  unless  they  stick,  no  subsequent 
covering  of  leather  or  paper  can  be  made 
to  lie  flat. 

When  the  lined  boards  are  quite  dry, 
they  should  be  paired  with  the  doubly 
lined  sides  together,  and  the  top  back 
corner  marked  to  correspond  with  the 
marks  on  the  top  back  corners  of  the 
book.  Then  near  the  top  edge,  with  the 
aid  of  a  carpenter's  square,  two  points  are 
marked  in  a  line  at  right  angles  to  the  cut 
edge.  The  pair  of  boards  is  then  knocked 
up  to  the  back  and  lowered  into  the  press 
as  before,  so  that  the  plough  knife  will 
exactly  cut  through  the  points.  The 
same  operation  is  repeated  on  the  two 
remaining  uncut  edges.  In  marking  out 
130 


those  for  the  fore-edge,  the  measurement  is  Cutting  and 

taken  with  a  pair  of  compasses  (fig.  48)    Attaching 

from  the  joint  of  the  book  to  the  fore-edge      Boards 

of  the  first  section.      If  the  book  has  been 

trimmed,  or  is  to    remain   uncut,  a  little 

more  must  be  allowed  for  the  "  squares," 

and  if  it  is  to   be  cut   in  the   plough,  it 

must  be  now  decided  how 

much    is    to    be    cut    off, 

remembering    that     it     is 

much  better  to   have  the 

boards  a    little  too  large, 

and    so    have    to    reduce 

them    after    the    book    is 

cut,   than    to    have    them 

too   small,   and   either  be 

obliged  to  get  out  a  new 

pair  of  boards,  or  unduly 

cut  down  the  book. 

The  height  of  the  boards 
for  a  book  that  has  been 
trimmed,  or  is  to  remain 
uncut,  will  be  the  height  of  the  page  with 
a   small    allowance    at    each    end    for   the 
squares.     When  a  pair  of  boards  has  been 
cut  all  round,  it  can  be  tested  for  square- 
ness by  reversing   one   board,  when   any 
inequality  that  there  may  be  will  appear 
doubled.     If  the  boards  are  out  of  truth 


FIG.   48. 


Boards 


Cutting  and  they  should  generally  be  put  on  one  side, 
Attaching    to  be  used  for  a  smaller  book,  and  new 
boards  got  out.     To  correct  a  badly  cut 
pair  of  boards,  it  is  necessary  to  reduce 
them  in  size,  and  the  book  consequently 
suffers  in  proportion.     If  the  boards  have 
been  found  to  be  truly  cut,  they  are  laid 
on  the  book,  and  the  position  of  the  slips 
marked  on  them  by  lines  at  right  angles 
to  the  back.     A  line  is 
then  made  parallel  to  the 
back,  about  half  an  inch 
in     (see    fig.    49).       At 
the     points     where     the 
lines    cross,    a    series   of 
holes    is    punched    from 
the  front  with  a  binder's 
FIG.  49.          bodkin  on  a  lead  plate, 
then  the  board  is  turned 
over,  and  a  second  series  is  punched  from 
the  back  about  half  an  inch  from  the  first. 
If  the  groove  of  the  back  is  shallower  than 
the  thickness  of  the  board,  the  top  back 
edge  of  the  board  should  be  bevelled  off 
with  a  file.     This  will  not  be  necessary  if 
the  groove  is  the  exact  depth.     When  the 
holes  have  been  punched,  it  is  well  to  cut 
a  series  of  V-shaped  depressions  from  the 
first  series  of  holes  to  the  back  to  receive 
132 


the  slips,  or  they  may  be  too  prominent  Cutting  and 
when  the  book  is  bound.  It  will  now  be  Attaching 
necessary  to  considerably  reduce  the  slips 
that  were  frayed  out  after  sewing,  and  to 
remove  all  glue  or  any  other  matter  at- 
tached to  them.  The  extent  to  which 
they  may  be  reduced  is  a  matter  of  nice 
judgment.  In  the  desire  to  ensure  ab- 
solute neatness  in  the  covering,  modern 
binders  often  reduce  the  slips  to  almost 
nothing.  On  the  other  hand,  some  go  to 
the  other  extreme,  and  leave  the  cord 
entire,  making  great  ridges  on  the  sides 
of  the  book  where  it  is  laced  in.  It 
should  be  possible  with  the  aid  of  the 
depressions,  cut  as  described,  to  use  slips 
with  sufficient  margin  of  strength,  and  yet 
to  have  no  undue  projection  on  the  cover. 
A  slight  projection  is  not  unsightly,  as  it 
gives  an  assurance  of  sound  construction 
and  strength,  and,  moreover,  makes  an 
excellent  starting-point  for  any  pattern 
that  may  be  used.  When  the  slips  have 
been  scraped  and  reduced,  the  portion  left 
should  consist  of  long  straight  silky  fibres. 
These  must  be  well  pasted,  and  the  ends 
very  slightly  twisted.  The  pointed  ends 
are  then  threaded  through  the  first  series 
of  holes  in  the  front  of  the  board,  and 


Boards 


Cutting  and  back  again  through  the  second  (fig.  50). 
Attaching  In  lacing-in  the  slips  must  not  be  pulled 
so  tight  as  to  prevent  the  board  from 
shutting  freely,  nor  left  so  loose  as  to 
make  a  perceptible  interval  in  the  joint  of 
the  book.  The  pasted  slips  having  been 
laced  in,  their  ends  are  cut  off  with  a 
sharp  knife,  flush  with  the  surface  of  the 


FIG.  50. 

board.  The  laced-in  slips  are  then  well 
hammered  on  a  knocking-down  iron  (see 
fig.  51),  first  from  the  front  and  then 
from  the  back,  care  being  taken  that  the 
hammer  face  should  fall  squarely,  or  the 
slips  may  be  cut.  This  should  rivet  them 
into  the  board,  leaving  little  or  no  pro- 
134 


jection.     If  in  lacing  in  the  fibres  should  Cutting  and 
get  twisted,  no  amount  of  hammering  will    Attaching 
make  them  flat,  so  that  it  is  important  in 
pointing  the  ends  for  lacing  in,  that  only 


Boards 


FIG.    51. 


the  points  are  twisted  just  sufficiently  to 
facilitate  the  threading  through  the  holes, 
and  not  enough  to  twist  the  whole  slip. 

To  lace  slips  into  wooden  boards,  holes 
are  made  with  a  brace  and  fine  twist  bit, 
and  the  ends  of  the  frayed  out  slips  may 
be  secured  with  a  wooden  plug  (see  fig.  52). 

Old  books  were    sometimes    sewn    on 

135 


Cutting  and  bands  of  leather,  but  as  those  sewn   on 

Attaching    cord   seem   to  have  lasted  on  the  whole 

Boards      mucn  better,  and  as,  moreover,  modern 


FIG.    52. 


cord  is  a  far  more   trustworthy  material 
than  modern  leather,  it  is  better  to  use 
cord  for  any  books  bound  now. 
136 


Cleaning  off 

the  Back 

CLEANING    OFF    THE    BACK    AND  anj  pressing 

PRESSING 

When  the  boards  have  been  laced  on 
and  the  slips  hammered  down,  the  book 
should  be  pressed.  Before  pressing,  a  tin 
is  put  on  each  side  of  both  boards,  one 
being  pushed  right  up  into  the  joint  on 
the  inside,  and  the  other  up  to  the  joint, 
or  a  little  over  it,  on  the  outside.  While 
in  the  press,  the  back  should  be 
covered  with  paste  and  left  to  j" —  | 
soak  for  a  few  minutes.  When  \  / 
the  glue  is  soft  the  surplus  on 
the  surface  can  be  scraped  off 
with  a  piece  of  wood  shaped  as  FIG.  53. 
shown  in  fig.  53.  For  impor- 
tant books  it  is  best  to  do  this  in  the 
lying  press,  but  some  binders  prefer 
first  to  build  up  the  books  in  the  stand- 
ing press,  and  then  to  paste  the  backs 
and  clean  them  off  there.  This  has  the 
advantage  of  being  a  quicker  method,  and 
will,  in  many  cases,  answer  quite  well. 
But  for  books  that  require  nice  adjustment 
it  will  be  found  better  to  clean  off  each 
volume  separately  in  the  lying  press,  and 
afterwards  to  build  up  the  books  and 

137 


Cleaning  off  boards  in  the  standing  press,  putting  the 
the  Back  larger  books  at  the  bottom.  It  must  be 
and  Pressing  seen  tjiat  tjie  entire  pile  is  exactly  in  the 
centre  under  the  screw,  or  the  pressure  will 
be  uneven.  To  ascertain  if  the  books  are 
built  up  truly,  the  pile  must  be  examined 
from  both  the  front  and  side  of  the  press. 
Each  volume  must  also  be  looked  at  care- 
fully to  see  that  it  lies  evenly,  and  that  the 
back  is  not  twisted  or  out  of  shape.  This 
is  important,  as  any  form  given  to  the 
book  when  it  is  pressed  at  this  stage  will 
be  permanent. 

Any  coloured  or  newly  printed  plates 
will  need  tissues,  as  in  the  former  press- 
ing ;  and  any  folded  plates  or  diagrams  or 
inserted  letters  will  need  a  thin  tin  on  each 
side  of  them  to  prevent  them  from  mark- 
ing the  book. 

Again,  the  pressure  on  hand-printed 
books  must  not  be  excessive. 

The  books  should  be  left  in  the  press 
at  least  a  night.  When  taken  out  they 
will  be  ready  for  head-banding,  unless  the 
edges  are  to  be  cut  in  boards. 


138 


CHAPTER   X 

Cutting  in  Boards — Gilding  and  Colouring  Edges 
CUTTING    IN    BOARDS 

THE  knife  for  cutting  edges  may  be  ground  Cutting  in 
more  acutely  than  for  cutting  boards,  and  Boards 
should  be  very  sharp,  or  the  paper  may 
be  torn.  The  plough  knife  should  never 
be  ground  on  the  under  side,  as  if  the 
under  side  is  not  quite  flat,  it  will  tend  to 
run  up  instead  of  cutting  straight  across. 
Before  beginning  to  cut  edges,  the  posi- 
tion of  the  knife  should  be  tested  care- 
fully by  screwing  the  plough  up,  with  the 
press  a  little  open,  and  noting  whereabouts 
on  the  left-hand  cheek  the  point  of  the 
knife  comes.  In  a  press  that  is  true  the 
knife  should  just  clear  the  edge  of  the 
press.  If  there  is  too  much  packing  the 
knife  will  cut  below  the  edge  of  the  press, 
and  if  too  little,  it  will  cut  above. 

"  Packing "  is  paper  inserted  between 
the  knife  and  the  metal  plate  on  the 
plough,  to  correct  the  position  of  the 
knife.  When  by  experiment  the  exact 
thickness  of  paper  necessary  for  any  given 


Cutting  in  knife  is  found,  the  packing  should  be 
Boards  carefully  kept  when  the  knife  is  taken  out 
for  grinding,  and  put  back  with  it  into 
the  plough. 

The  first  edge  to  be  cut  is  the  top,  and 
the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  place  the  boards 
in  the  position  they  will  hold  when  the 
book  is  bound.  The  front  board  is  then 
dropped  the  depth  of  the  square  required, 
care  being  taken  that  the  back  edge  of  the 
board  remains  evenly  in  the  joint.  A  piece 
of  cardboard,  or  two  or  three  thicknesses 
of  paper,  are  then  slipped  in  between  the 
end  paper  and  the  back  board  to  prevent 
the  latter  from  being  cut  by  the  knife. 
The  book  is  then  carefully  lowered  into 
the  press,  with  the  back  towards  the  work- 
man, until  the  top  edge  of  the  front  board 
is  exactly  even  with  the  right-hand  cheek, 
and  the  press  screwed  up  evenly.  The 
back  board  should  show  the  depth  of  the 
square  above  the  left-hand  cheek.  It  is 
very  important  that  the  edge  of  the  back 
board  should  be  exactly  parallel  with  the 
press,  and  if  at  first  it  is  not  so,  the  book 
must  be  twisted  until  it  is  right. 

The  edges  can  now  be  cut  with  the 
plough  as  in  cutting  mill-boards.  The 
tail  of  the  book  is  cut  in  the  same  way, 

140 


still  keeping  the  back  of  the  book  towards   Cutting  in 
the  workman,  but  cutting  from  the  back      Boards 
board. 

Cutting  the  fore-edge  is  more  difficult. 
The  waste  sheets  at  each  end  of  the  book 
should  be  cut  off  flush  with  the  edge  of 
the  board,  and  marks  made  on  them  below 
the  edge  showing  the  amount  of  the  square, 
and  consequently  how  much  is  to  be  cut 
off.  The  curve  of  the 
back,  and  consequent 
curve  of  the  fore-edge, 
must  first  be  got  rid  of, 
by  inserting  a  pair  of 
pieces  of  flat  steel  called 
"  trindles "  (fig.  54) 
across  the  back,  from 
the  inside  of  the  boards. 
When  these  are  inserted 
the  back  must  be  knocked  quite  flat, 
and,  in  the  case  of  a  heavy  book,  a 
piece  of  tape  may  be  tied  round  the 
leaves  (see  fig.  55)  to  keep  them  in 
position.  A  pair  of  cutting  boards  is 
placed  one  on  each  side  of  the  leaves,  the 
back  one  exactly  up  to  the  point  that  the 
edge  of  the  board  came  to,  and  the  front 
one  as  much  below  that  point  as  it  is 
desired  the  square  of  the  fore-edge  should 

141 


FIG.  54. 


Cutting  in  be.  The  trindles  are  removed  while  the 
Boards  book  is  held  firmly  between  the  cutting 
boards  by  the  finger  and  thumb  ;  book  and 
boards  are  then  lowered  very  carefully  into 
the  press.  The  top  edge  of  the  front 
cutting  board  should  be  flush  with  the 
right  -  hand  cheek  of 
the  press,  and  that  of 
the  back  a  square  above 
the  left-hand  cheek  (see 
fig.  56).  A  further 
test  is  to  look  along 
the  surface  of  the 
right  -  hand  cheek, 
when,  if  the  book  has 
been  inserted  truly,  the 
amount  of  the  back 
cutting  board  in  sight 
should  exactly  cor- 
respond with  the 
amount  of  the  paper 
FIG.  55.  to  be  cut  showing 

above  the  front  board. 
It  will  also  be  necessary  before  cutting 
to  look  at  the  back,  and  to  see  that 
it  has  remained  flat.  If  it  has  gone 
back  to  its  old  curve,  or  the  book 
has  been  put  into  tjie  press  crookedly, 
it  must  be  taken  right  out  again  and  the 
142 


trindles  inserted  afresh,  as  it  is  usually  a   Cutting  in 
waste  of  time  to  try  to  adjust  the  book      Boards 
when  it  is  in  the  press.     The  leaves  are 


FIG.    56. 

cut  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  the  head 
and  tail. 


GILDING     OR     COLOURING     THE     EDGES 
OF    A    CUT    BOOK. 

Gilding  or        Gilding   the    edges   of  a   book   cut   in 

Colouring    boards  is  much  the  same  process  as  that 

the  Edges   described  for  the  trimmed  book,  excepting 

°  E    k       ^at  when  gilt  in  boards  the  edges  can  be 

scraped  and  slightly  sand-papered.     It  is 

the  custom  to  admire  a  perfectly  solid  gilt 

edge,  looking  more  like  a  solid  sheet  of 

metal,  than  the  leaves  of  a  book.     As  the 

essential  characteristic  of  a  book  is,  that  it 

is  composed  of  leaves,  this  fact  is  better 

accepted  and   emphasised  by  leaving  the 

edges  a  little   rough,  so  that  even  when 

gilt  they  are  evidently  the  edges  of  leaves 

of  paper,  and  not  the  sides  of  a  block,  or 

of  something  solid. 

To  gild  the  edges  of  a  cut  book  the 
boards  should  be  turned  back,  and  cutting 
boards  put  on  each  side  of  the  book  flush 
with  the  edge  to  be  gilt.  For  the  fore- 
edge  the  book  must  be  thrown  up  with 
trindles  first,  unless  it  is  desired  to  gild  in 
the  round,  a  process  which  gives  the  objec- 
tionable solid  metallic  edge. 

After  the  edges  have  been  gilt  they  may 
be  decorated  by  tooling,  called  "  gauffer- 
144 


ing."  This  may  be  done,  either  by  tooling  Gilding  or 
with  hot  tools  directly  on  the  gold  while  Colouring 
the  leaves  are  screwed  up  tightly  in  the  th*:  E<Jges 
press,  or  by  laying  another  coloured  gold 
on  the  top  of  the  first  and  tooling  over 
that,  leaving  the  pattern  in  the  new  gold 
on  the  original  colour.  But,  to  my  mind, 
edges  are  best  left  undecorated,  except  for 
plain  gold  or  colour. 

If  the  edges  are  to  be  coloured,  they 
should  be  slightly  scraped,  and  the  colour 
put  on  with  a  sponge,  commencing  with 
the  fore-edge,  which  should  be  slightly 
fanned  out,  and  held  firmly,  by  placing  a 
pressing-board  above  it,  and  pressing  with 
the  hand  on  this.  The  colour  must  be 
put  on  very  thinly,  commencing  from  the 
centre  of  the  fore-edge  and  working  to 
either  end,  and  as  many  coats  put  on  as 
are  necessary  to  get  the  depth  of  colour 
required.  The  head  and  tail  are  treated 
in  the  same  way,  excepting  that  they 
cannot  be  fanned  out,  and  the  colour 
should  be  applied  from  the  back  to  the  fore- 
edge.  If  in  the  fore-edge  an  attempt  is 
made  to  colour  from  one  end  to  the  other, 
and  if  in  the  head  or  tail  from  the  fore-edge 
to  the  back,  the  result  will  almost  certainly 
be  that  the  sponge  will  leave  a  thick 
10  145 


Gilding  or  deposit  of  colour  round  the  corner  from 

Colouring    which  it  starts. 

the  Edges        por  colourmo-  edges  almost  any  stain 

of  a  Cut         .,,  Bj.  ,      7 

Book  w  answer,  or  ordinary  water-colours  may 
be  used  if  moistened  with  size. 

When  the  colour  is  dry  the  edge  should 

be  lightly  rubbed  over 

vi  li  {  with  a  little  beeswax,  and 

FIG.  57.  burnished  with  a  tooth 
burnisher  (see  fig.  57). 

In  addition  to  plain  colour  and  gilding, 
the  edges  of  a  book  may  be  decorated  in  a 
variety  of  ways.  The  fore-edge  may  be 
fanned  out  and  painted  in  any  device  in 
water-colour  and  afterwards  gilded ;  the 
painting  will  only  show  when  the  book  is 
open.  The  fore-edge  for  this  must  be  cut 
very  solid,  and  if  the  paper  is  at  all 
absorbent,  must  be  sized  with  vellum  size 
before  being  painted.  The  paints  used 
must  be  simple  water-colour,  and  the  edge 
must  not  be  touched  with  the  hand  before 
gilding,  as  if  there  is  any  grease  or  finger- 
mark on  it,  the  gold  will  not  stick  evenly. 
Painting  on  the  fore-edge  should  only  be 
attempted  when  the  paper  of  the  book  is 
thin  and  of  good  quality.  More  common 
methods  of  decorating  edges  are  by  mar- 
bling and  sprinkling,  but  they  are  both 

146 


inferior  to  plain  colouring.     Some  pleasant  Gilding  or 

effects   are   sometimes   obtained   by   mar-  Colouring 

bling    edges    and   then   gilding    over   the  ^ ^^ 

marbling.  °  gookut 

CHAPTER   XI 

Headbanding 

\ 

HEADBANDS 

MODERN   headbands  are  small  pieces  of  Headbands 

vellum,  gut,  or  cord  sewn  on  to  the  head 

and   tail   of  a   book   with  silk   or  thread. 

They  resist  the  strain  on  the  book  when 

it  is  taken  from  the  shelf.     The  vellum 

slip  or  cord  must  be  of  such  a  depth,  that 

when  covered  with  silk  it  will  be  slightly 

lower  than  the  square  of  the  boards.     The 

cut  edge  of  the  vellum  always  slants,  and 

the  slip  must  be  placed  in  position  so  that 

it  tilts  back    rather  than  forward  on  the 

book. 

To  start,  ease  the  boards  slightly  on 
the  slips  and  pull  them  down  with  the 
top  edges  flush  with  the  top  edge  of  the 
leaves.  If  this  is  not  done  the  silk  catches 
on  the  projecting  edges  as  the  band  is 
worked.  Stand  the  book  in  a  finishing 

H7 


Headbands  press,  fore-edge  to  the  worker,  and  tilted 
forward  so  as  to  give  a  good  view  of  the 
headband  as  it  is  worked.  The  light 
must  come  from  the  left,  and  well  on  to 
the  work.  A  needle  threaded  with  silk 
is  put  in  at  the  head  of  the  book,  and 
through  the  centre  of  the  first  section 
after  the  end  papers,  and  drawn  out  at 
the  back  below  the  kettle  stitch  with  about 
two-thirds  of  the  silk.  The  needle  is 
again  inserted  in  the  same  place,  and  drawn 
through  until  a  loop  of  silk  is  left.  The 
vellum  slip  is  placed  in  the  loop,  with  the 
end  projecting  slightly  to  the  left.  It 
must  be  held  steady  by  a  needle  placed 
vertically  behind  it,  with  its  point  between 
the  leaves  of  the  first  section.  The  needle 
end  of  silk  is  then  behind  the  headband, 
and  the  shorter  end  in  front.  The  needle 
end  is  brought  over  from  the  back  with 
the  right  hand,  passed  into  the  left  hand, 
and  held  taut.  The  short  end  is  picked 
up  with  the  right  hand,  brought  over  the 
needle  end  under  the  vellum,  and  pulled 
tight  from  the  back.  This  is  repeated ; 
the  back  thread  is  again  drawn  up  and 
over  the  band  to  the  front,  the  needle  end 
crosses  it,  and  is  drawn  behind  under  the 
vellum  slip,  and  so  on.  The  crossing  of 
148 


the  threads  form  a  "  bead,"  which  must  Headbands 

be  watched,  and  kept  as  tight  as  possible, 

and  well  down  on  the  leaves  of  the  book. 

Whenever  the  vellum  or  string  begins  to 

shift   in  position,  it   must  be  tied  down. 

This  is  done  when  the  needle  end  of  silk 

is  at  the  back.     A  finger  of  the  left  hand 

is  placed  on  the  thread  of  silk  at  the  back, 

and  holds  it   firmly  just  below   the  slip. 

The  needle  end  is  then  brought  up  and 

over  the  slip,  but  instead  of  crossing  it 

with  the  front  thread,  the  needle  is  passed 

between  the  leaves  and  out  at  the  back  of 

the  book,  below  the  kettle  stitch,  and  the 

thread  gradually   drawn  tight,  and    from 

under  the  left-hand  finger.     The  loop  so 

made  will  hold  the  band  firmly,  and  the 

silk  can  then  be  brought  up  and  over  the 

slip  and  crossed  in  the  usual  way.     The 

band  should  be  worked  as  far  as  the  end 

papers,    and    should    be    finished    with  a 

double  "  tie  down,"  after  which  the  front 

thread    is  drawn  under    the    slip   to    the 

back.      Both  the  ends  of  silk  are  then  cut 

off  to  about  half  an  inch,  frayed  out,  and 

pasted  down  as  flatly  as  possible  on  the 

back  of  the  book. 

The    band    should   be    tied   down   fre- 
quently.    It  is  not  too  much  to  tie  down 

149 


Headbands  every  third  time  the  needle  end  of  the 
silk  comes  to  the  back.  To  make  good 
headbands  the  pull  on  the  silk  must  be 
even  throughout. 

When  the  ends  of  the  silk  are  pasted 
down,  the  ends  of  the  vellum  slip  are  cut 
off  as  near  the  silk  as  possible.  The  correct 
length  of  the  headband  is  best  judged  by 
pressing  the  boards  together  with  thumb 
and  finger  at  the  opposite  ends  of  the 
band,  so  as  to  compress  the  sections  into 
their  final  compass.  If  the  band  then 
buckles  in  the  least,  it  is  too  long  and 
must  be  shortened. 

The  mediaeval  headbands  were  sewn 
with  the  other  bands  (see  fig.  32),  and 
were  very  strong,  as  they  were  tied  down 
at  every  section.  Modern  worked  head- 
bands, although  not  so  strong,  are,  if  fre- 
quently tied  down,  strong  enough  to 
resist  any  reasonable  strain.  There  are 
many  other  ways  of  headbanding,  but  if 
the  one  described  is  mastered,  the  various 
other  patterns  will  suggest  themselves  if 
variety  is  needed.  For  very  large  books  a 
double  headband  may  be  worked  on  two 
pieces  of  gut  or  string — a  thick  piece  with 
a  thin  piece  in  front.  The  string  should 
first  be  soaked  in  thin  glue  and  left  to 

150 


dry.  Such  a  band  is  worked  with  a  figure  Headbands 
of  eight  stitch.  Headbands  may  also  be 
worked  with  two  or  three  shades  of  silk. 
As  vellum  is  apt  to  get  hard  and  to  break 
when  it  is  used  for  headbanding,  it  is  well 
to  paste  two  pieces  together  with  linen  in 
between,  and  to  cut  into  strips  as  required. 

Machine-made  headbands  can  be  bought 
by  the  yard.  Such  bands  are  merely  glued 
on,  but  as  they  have  but  little  strength, 
should  not  be  used. 

Where  leather  joints  are  used,  the 
headbands  may  be  worked  on  pieces  of 
soft  leather  sized  and  screwed  up.  If  the 
ends  are  left  long  and  tied  in  front  while 
the  book  is  being  covered,  they  may  be 
conveniently  let  into  grooves  in  the  boards 
before  the  leather  joint  is  pasted  down. 
This  method,  I  think,  has  little  construc- 
tive value,  but  it  certainly  avoids  the 
rather  unfinished  look  of  the  cut-off  head- 
band. 


'5* 


CHAPTER  XII 

Preparing  for  Covering — Paring  Leather — Covering — 
Mitring  Corners — Filling-in  Boards 

PREPARING    FOR    COVERING 

Preparing    AFTER  the   headband   is  worked,  a  piece 
for        of  brown  or  other  stout  paper  should  be 

/">  *  *       Jt 

covering  we]Q  g}uecj  on  at  ^he  head  and  tail,  care 
being  taken  that  it  is  firmly  attached  to 
the  back  and  the  headband.  When  dry, 
the  part  projecting  above  the  headband  is 
neatly  cut  off,  and  the  part  on  the  back 
well  sand-papered,  to  remove  any  irregu- 
larity caused  by  the  tie-downs  attaching 
the  headband.  For  most  books  this  will 
be  quite  sufficient  lining  up,  but  very 
heavy  books  are  best  further  lined  up 
between  the  bands  with  linen,  or  thin 
leather.  This  can  be  put  on  by  pasting 
the  linen  or  leather  and  giving  the  back  a 
very  thin  coat  of  glue. 

The  only  thing  now  left  to  do  before 
covering  will  be  to  set  the  squares  and  to 
cut  off  a  small  piece  of  the  back  corner  of 
each  board  at  the  head  and  tail,  to  make 
it  possible  for  the  boards  to  open  and 
152 


shut  without  dragging  the  head-cap  out  of   Preparing 

place.     The  form  of  the  little  piece  to  be         f°r 

cut  off  varies  with  each  individual  binder,    Covering 

but  I  have  found  for  an  octavo  book  that 

a   cut    slightly   sloping    from    the    inside 

cutting    off  the    corner   about 

an  eighth  of  an  inch  each  way, 

gives  the   best   result  (see  fig. 

58).      When    the    corner    has 

been  cut  off,  the  boards  should     FIG.  58. 

be  thrown  back,  and  the  slips 

between    the    book    and    the    board  well 

pasted.       When     these    have    soaked    a 

little,    the     squares     of    the    boards    are 

set ;  that  is,  the  boards  are  fixed  so  that 

exactly   the   same   square  shows   on   each 

board    above     head    and    tail.     A    little 

larger  square  is  sometimes  an  advantage 

at  the  tail  to  keep   the  head-cap  well  off 

the  shelf,  the  essential   thing  being   that 

both  head  and  both  tail  squares  should  be 

the  same.     In   the   case  of  an  old  book 

that   has   not  been    recut,  the   edges  will 

often  be  found  to   be  uneven.     In  such 

cases  the  boards  must  be  made  square,  and 

so  set  that  the  book  stands  up  straight. 

When  the  slips  have  been  pasted  and 
the  squares  set,  tins  can  be  put  inside  and 
outside  the  boards,  and  the  book  given  a 


Preparing  slight  nip  in  the  press  to  flatten  the  slips. 
for  Only  a  comparatively  light  pressure  should 

Covering  ^e  given,  or  the  lining  up  of  the  head- 
bands or  back  will  become  cockled  and 
detached. 


PARING    LEATHER 


Paring  While  the  slips  are  being  set  in  the  press 

Leather  the  cover  can  be  got  out.  Judgment  is 
necessary  in  cutting  out  covers.  One 
workman  will  be  able,  by  careful  cutting, 
to  get  six  covers  out  of  a  skin  where 
another  will  only  get  four.  The  firm 
part  of  the  skin  is  the  back  and  sides,  and 
this  only  should  be  used  for  the  best 
books.  The  fleshy  parts  on  the  flanks 
and  belly  will  not  wear  sufficiently  well  to 
be  suitable  for  good  bookbinding. 

The  skin  should  be  cut  out  leaving 
about  an  inch  all  round  for  turning  in 
when  the  book  is  covered,  and  when  cut 
out  it  must  be  pared.  If  the  leather  is 
of  European  manufacture  most  of  the 
paring  will  have  been  done  before  it  is 
sold,  and  the  leather  manufacturer  will 
have  shaved  it  to  any  thickness  required. 
This  is  a  convenience  that  is  partly  respon- 
sible for  the  unduly  thin  leather  that  is 

'54 


commonly  used.  The  better  plan  is  to  Paring 
get  the  leather  rather  thick,  and  for  the  Leather 
binder  to  pare  it  down  where  necessary. 
For  small  books  it  is  essential,  in  order 
that  the  covers  may  open  freely,  and  the 
boards  not  look  clumsy,  that  the  leather 
should  be  very  thin  at  the  joint  and  round 
the  edges  of  the  boards.  For  such  books 
it  is  very  important  that  a  small,  naturally 
thin  skin  should  be  used  that  will  not 
have  to  be  unduly  pared  down,  and  that 
the  large  and  thicker  skins  should  be  kept 
for  large  books. 

Binders  like  using  large  skins  because 
there  is  much  less  waste,  but  if  these  skins 
are  used  for  small  books,  so  much  of  the 
leather  substance  has  to  be  pared  away,  that 
only  the  comparatively  brittle  grained  sur- 
face remains.  By  the  modern  process  of 
dyeing  this  surface  is  often  to  some  extent 
injured,  and  its  strength  sometimes  totally 
destroyed. 

When  the  cover  has  been  cut  to  size  the 
book  is  laid  on  it  with  the  boards  open, 
and  a  pencil  line  drawn  round  them,  a 
mark  being  made  to  show  where  the  back 
comes.  The  skin  is  then  pared,  making 
it  thin  where  the  edge  of  the  boards  will 
come.  Great  care  must  be  taken  that  the 

155 


Paring  thinning  does  not  commence  too  abruptly, 
Leather  Or  a  ridge  will  be  apparent  when  the 
leather  is  on  the  book. 

The  paring  must  be  done  quite  smoothly 
and  evenly.  Every  unevenness  shows  when 
the  cover  is  polished  and  pressed.  Care  is 
needed  in  estimating  the  amount  that  will 
have  to  be  pared  off  that  part  of  the  leather 
that  covers  the  back  and  joints.  The  object 
of  the  binder  should  be  to  leave  these  por- 
tions as  thick  as  he  can  consistently  with 
the  free  opening  of  the  boards.  The  leather 
at  the  head-caps  must  be  pared  quite  thin, 
as  the  double  thickness  on  the  top  of  the 
headband  is  apt  to  make  this  part  project 
above  the  edges  of  the  board.  This  is  a 
great  trouble,  especially  at  the  tail,  where, 
if  the  head-cap  projects  beyond  the  boards, 
the  whole  weight  of  the  book  rests  on  it, 
and  it  is  certain  to  be  rubbed  off  when  the 
book  is  put  on  the  shelf. 

The  method  of  paring  with  a  French 
knife  (fig.  60,  A) — the  only  form  of  knife 
in  use  by  binders  that  gives  sufficient  con- 
trol over  the  leather — is  shown  at  fig.  59. 
To  use  this  knife  properly,  practice  is  re- 
quired. The  main  thing  to  learn  is  that 
the  knife  must  be  used  quite  flat,  and 
made  to  cut  by  having  a  very  slight  burr 

.56 


FIG.    59. 


Paring 
Leather 


Paring 
Leather 


on  the  under  side.  This  burr  is  got  by 
rubbing  the  knife  on  the  lithographic  stone 
on  which  the  paring  is  done.  The  handle 
of  the  knife  should  never  be  raised  to  such 
a  height  above  the  surface  of  the  stone 
that  it  is  possible  to  get  the  under  fingers 
of  the  right  hand  over  the  edge  of  the 


FIG.   60. 


stone.  Another  form  of  knife  suitable 
for  paring  the  edges  of  leather  is  shown 
at  fig.  60,  B. 

To  test  if  the  leather  has  been  suffi- 
ciently pared,  fold  it  over  where  the  edge 
of  the  board  will  come,  and  run  the  finger 
along  the  folded  leather.  If  the  paring 
has  been  done  properly  it  will  feel  quite 
even  the  whole  length  of  the  fold ;  but  if 
there  are  any  irregularities,  they  will  be 
very  apparent,  and  the  paring  must  be 
gone  over  again  till  they  have  disappeared. 


When  even,  the  book  must  be  again  laid      Paring 
on  the  leather  with  the  boards  open,  and  a     Leather 
pencil  line  drawn  round  as  before.     If  there 
are  leather  joints  they  will  have  been  pared 
before  the  book  was  sewn,  and  care  must 
be    taken    in    paring    the   turn-in   of  the 
cover  that  it  is  of  the  same  thickness  as 
the    leather  joint,   or    it  will    be    impos- 
sible  to   make  a  neat  mitre  at  the  back 
corners. 


COVERING 

Before  covering,  the  book  must  be  Covering 
looked  at  to  see  that  the  bands  are  quite 
square  and  at  equal  distances  apart.  Any 
slight  errors  in  this  respect  can  be  cor- 
rected by  holding  the  book  in  the  lying 
press  between  backing  boards  and  gently 
tapping  the  bands  from  one  side  or  the 
other  with  a  piece  of  wook  struck  with 
a  hammer.  This  is  best  done  when  the 
back  is  cleaned  off,  but  by  damping  the 
bands  slightly  it  may  be  done  just  before 
covering.  The  squares  must  be  looked 
to,  and  the  edges  of  the  board  well  rubbed 
with  a  folder,  or  tapped  with  a  hammer, 
to  remove  any  burr  that  may  have  been 
caused  by  the  plough  knife,  or  any  chance 

159 


Covering  blow.  The  back  is  then  moistened  with 
paste,  or,  in  the  case  of  a  very  large  book, 
with  thin  glue,  and  left  to  soak.  The 
cover  can  then  be  well  pasted  with  thick- 
ish  paste,  that  has  been  previously  well 
beaten  up.  When  the  cover  is  pasted,  it 
can  be  folded  with  the  pasted  sides  to- 
gether and  left  to  soak  for  a  few  minutes 
while  the  back  is  again  looked  to,  and 
any  roughness  smoothed  down  with  the 


FIG.  61. 


folder.  Before  covering,  the  bands  should 
be  nipped  up  with  band  nippers  (see  fig. 
61)  to  make  sure  that  they  are  sharp. 
The  coverer  should  have  ready  before 
covering  a  clean  paring  stone,  one  or  two 
folders,  a  pair  of  nickeled-band  nippers, 
a  clean  sponge,  a  little  water  in  a  saucer, 
a  piece  of  thread,  and  a  strip  of  smooth 
wood  (boxwood  for  preference),  called  a 
band  stick,  used  for  smoothing  the  leather 
between  the  bands,  a  pair  of  scissors,  and 
a  small  sharp  knife,  a  pair  of  waterproof 
sheets  the  size  of  the  book,  and,  if  the 
1 60 


book  is  a  large  one,  a  pair  of  tying  up  Covering 
boards,  with  tying  up  string,  and  two 
strips  of  wood  covered  in  blotting-paper 
or  leather.  It  is  best  to  have  the  band 
nippers  for  covering  nickeled  to  prevent 
the  iron  from  staining  the  leather.  The 
waterproof  sheets  recommended  are  thin 
sheets  of  celluloid,  such  as  are  used  by 
photographers. 

When  these  things  are  ready,  the  pasted 
cover  should  be  examined  and  repasted  if 
it  has  dried  in  any  place.  The  amount 
of  paste  to  be  used  for  covering  can  only 
be  learned  by  experience.  A  thick  leather 
will  take  more  than  a  thin  one,  but, 
provided  the  cover  sticks  tight  at  every 
point,  the  less  paste  used  the  better.  If 
there  is  too  much,  it  will  rub  up  and 
make  very  ugly,  uneven  places  under  the 
leather ;  and  if  there  is  too  little,  the 
cover  will  not  stick. 

Take  the  pasted  cover  and  look  to  see 
which  is  the  better  side  of  the  leather. 
Lay  the  front  of  the  book  down  on  this 
exactly  up  to  the  marks  that  show  the 
beginning  of  the  turn-in.  Then  draw 
the  leather  over  the  back  and  on  to  the 
other  side,  pulling  it  slightly,  but  not 
dragging  it.  Then  stand  the  book  on 
"  161 


Covering  its  fore-edge  on  a  piece  of  waste  paper, 
with  the  leather  turned  out  on  either  side, 
as  shown  at  fig.  62,  and  nip  up  the  bands 


FIG.   62. 


with  nickeled  band  nippers  (see  fig.  63). 
After  this  is  done  there  will  probably  be 
a  good  deal  of  loose  leather  on  the  back. 
This  can  be  got  rid  of  by  dragging  the 
leather  on  to  the  side  ;  but  by  far  the 
better  plan,  when  the  back  is  large  enough 
to  allow  it,  is  to  work  up  the  surplus 
leather  on  to  the  back  between  the  panels. 
This  requires  a  good  deal  of  practice,  and 
is  very  seldom  done  ;  but  it  can  be  done 
with  most  satisfactory  results.  The  book 
should  now  have  the  leather  on  the  back 
162 


stretched    lengthways    to    make    it    cover    Covering 
the   bands,   but   not   stretched   the   other 
way,  and  the  leather  on  the  boards  should 
lie  perfectly  flat  and   not  be  stretched  at 


FIG.   63. 


all.  The  leather  on  the  fore-edge  of  the 
board  is  then  rubbed  with  the  hand  on 
the  outside,  and  then  on  to  the  edge, 
and  then  on  the  inside.  The  edge  and 
the  inside  are  smoothed  down  with  a 
folder,  and  any  excessive  paste  on  the 

163 


Covering  inside  squeezed  out  and  removed.  When 
the  fore-edge  of  both  boards  has  been 
turned  in,  the  head  and  tail  must  also  be 
turned  in.  A  little  paste  is  put  on  to 
that  part  of  the  leather  that  will  turn  in 
below  the  headband,  and  this  portion  is 
neatly  tucked  in  between  the  boards  and 
the  back.  The  turned-in  edge  must  lie 
quite  evenly,  or  it  will  result  in  a  ridge 
on  the  back.  The  leather  is  turned  in 


C 


FIG.    64. 

on  the  two  boards  in  the  same  way  as 
described  for  the  fore-edge,  and  the  edge 
rubbed  square  with  a  folder.  At  fig.  64 
is  shown  a  convenient  form  of  folder  for 
covering.  At  the  corners  the  leather 
must  be  pulled  over  as  far  as  possible 
with  two  folders  meeting  at  the  extreme 
point,  the  object  being  to  avoid  a  cut  in 
the  leather  at  the  corner  of  the  board. 
The  folds  so  formed  must  be  cut  off 
with  the  scissors  (see  fig.  65,  A),  then 
one  edge  tucked  neatly  under  the  other, 
(B).  Care  must  be  taken  throughout  not 
to  soil  the  edges  of  the  leaves. 

At  the  headband  the  fold  of  leather, 

164 


pared    thin    for    the    purpose,    must    be    Covering 
squeezed    together    with    a    folder    and 
pulled    out    a    little    to    leave    an    even 
projection    that   can    be   turned    over    to 


B 


FIG.  65. 


form  a  head-cap.  When  both  ends  have 
been  turned  in,  in  this  way,  the  boards 
must  each  be  opened  and  pressed  against 
a  straight-edge  held  in  the  joint  (fig.  66) 


FIG.  66. 


to  ensure  that  there  is  enough  leather 
in  the  turn-in  of  the  joint  to  allow  the 
cover  to  open  freely ;  and  the  leather  of 
the  turn-in  at  the  head  and  tail  must 

165 


Covering    be     carefully     smoothed     down    with     a 
folder. 

The  book  may  now  be  shut  up  if  a 
waterproof  sheet  is  put  at  each  end  to 
prevent  the  damp  of  the  cover  from  cock- 
ling the  paper.  It  must  then  be  stood  on 
its  fore-edge  and  the  bands 
again  nipped  up  with  a 
pair  of  nickeled  band 
nippers,  and  the  panels 
between  the  bands  well 
pressed  down  with  the 
band  stick  to  cause  the 
leather  to  stick  at  every 
point.  A  piece  of  thread 
is  tied  round  the  back 
from  head  to  tail,  squeezr 
ing  the  leather  in  the  gap 
caused  by  the  corners  of  the  board  having 
been  cut  off.  The  book  is  then  turned 
up  on  end,  resting  the  tail  on  a  folder 
or  anything  that  will  keep  the  projecting 
leather  for  the  head-cap  from  being  pre- 
maturely flattened.  The  head-caps  (fig. 
67)  must  now  be  set.  To  do  this  the 
first  finger  of  the  left  hand  is  placed 
behind  it,  and  a  sharp  folder  is  pressed 
into  the  corners  of  the  head-cap  between 
the  headband  and  the  thread.  The  leather 
166 


FIG. 


is  then  tapped  over  the  headband,  and  the  Covering 
whole  turned  over  on  the  stone  and  rubbed 
at  the  back  with  a  folder.  This  opera- 
tion requires  great  nicety.  The  shape  of 
head-cap  is  shown  at  fig.  67.  The  nice 
adjustment  of  head-caps  and  corners,  al- 
though of  no  constructional  value,  are  the 


FIG.  68. 


points  by  which  the  forwarding  of  a  book 
is  generally  valued. 

If  the  book  is  a  large  one,  it  will  be 
best  to  tie  it  up.  The  method  of  tying 
up  is  shown  in  fig.  68.  The  tying  up 
cords  will  make  marks  at  the  side  of  the 
bands,  that  are  not  unpleasant  on  a  large 


Covering  book.  If  they  are  objected  to,  it  is  best 
to  tie  the  book  up  for  about  half-an-hour, 
and  then  to  untie  it,  and  smooth  out  the 
marks  with  the  band  stick.  Even  with 
small  books,  if  the  leather  seems  inclined 
to  give  trouble,  it  is  well  to  tie  them  up 
for  a  short  time,  then  to  untie  them, 
to  smooth  out  any  marks  or  inequalities, 
and  to  tie  them  up  again. 


MITRING    CORNERS    AND    FILLING    IN 

Mitring         A  book  that  has  been  covered  should 
Corners  and  be    left    under   a   light   weight    until    the 

c**ii*        *  ^  ^ 

next  day,  with  waterproof  sheets  be- 
tween the  damp  cover  and  the  end  paper 
to  prevent  the  sheets  of  the  book  from 
cockling  through  the  damp.  When  the 
cover  is  thoroughly  set  the  boards  should 
be  carefully  opened,  pressing  them  slightly 
to  the  joint  to  ensure  a  square  and  even 
joint.  If,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  the 
turn-in  of  the  leather  over  the  joint 
seems  to  be  inclined  to  bind,  the  cover 
should  be  merely  opened  half-way,  and 
the  leather  of  the  turns-in  of  the  joint 
damped  with  a  sponge,  and  left  to  soak 
for  a  short  time,  and  then  the  cover  can 
168 


usually  be  opened  without  any  dragging.     Mitring 
A   section   of  a  good  joint   is    shown  at  Comers  and 
fig.  69,  A,  and  a  bad  one  at  B.  FUling  in 

The  next  operation  will  be  to  fill  in 
the  board  and  mitre  the  corners.  To  fill 
in  the  boards,  a  piece  of  paper  as  thick  as 


the  turn-in  of  the  leather  (engineer's 
cartridge  paper  answers  very  well)  should 
be  cut  a  little  smaller  than  the  board, 
with  one  edge  cut  straight ;  then  with  the 
straight  edge  adjusted  to  the  back  of  the 
board,  and  a  weight  placed  on  the  centre, 
the  paper  is  marked  round  with  divi- 
ders set  to  the  intended  width  of  the 
turn-in  of  the  leather.  Then  with  a 
sharp  knife,  paper  and  leather  may  be  cut 
through  together.  The  paper  should 
then  be  marked  to  show  its  position  on 
the  board,  and  the  ragged  edges  of  the 
leather  trimmed  off.  This  will  leave  an 
even  margin  of  leather  on  three  sides  of 
the  inside  of  the  board,  and  a  piece  of 
paper  that  will  exactly  fit  the  remaining 
space.  The  corners  must  next  be  mitred. 

169 


Mitring     To  do   this,  both  thicknesses   of  leather 

Corners  and  are  cut  through  from   the   corner  of  the 

Filling  m    boarcl  to  the  corner  of  the  inside  margin. 

The  knife  should  be  held  slightly  slanting 

to  make  a  cut,  as  shown  at  fig.  70.     The 

corners  should  then  be  thoroughly  damped, 


FIG.   70. 


and  the  overlapping  leather  from  both 
sides  removed,  leaving  what  should  be  a 
neat  and  straight  join.  If  the  leather  at 
the  extreme  corner  should  prove  to  be,  as 
is  often  the  case,  too  thick  to  turn  in 
neatly,  the  corners  should  be  opened  out 
and  the  leather  pared  against  the  thumb 
nail,  and  then  well  pasted  and  turned  back 
again.  The  extreme  corner  may  be 
slightly  tapped  on  the  stone  with  a  ham- 
mer, and  the  sides  rubbed  with  a  folder, 
to  ensure  squareness  and  sharpness.  When 
all  four  corners  have  been  mitred,  the  filling 
in  papers  can  be  pasted  in.  As  they  will 
probably  stretch  a  little  with  the  paste,  it 
will  be  well  to  cut  off  a  slight  shaving,  and 
they  should  then  fit  exactly.  When  the 
boards  have  been  filled  in  and  well  rubbed 
170 


down,  the  book  should  be  left  for  some     Mitring 
hours  with   the  boards   standing  open   to  Corners  and 
enable   the   filling-in   papers  to   draw   the    Flllm8 m 
boards  slightly  inwards  to  overcome  the 
pull  of  the  leather. 

In  cases  where  there  are  leather  joints 
the  operation  is  as  follows :  The  waste 
end  paper  is  removed,  and  the  edge  of  the 
board  and  joint  carefully  cleaned  from 
glue  and  all  irregularities,  and  if,  as  is 
most  likely,  it  is  curved  from  the  pull  of 
the  leather,  the  board  must  be  tapped  or 
ironed  down  until  it  is  perfectly  straight. 
If  there  is  difficulty  in  making  the  board 
lie  straight  along  the  joint  before  pasting 
down,  it  will  be  well  first  to  fill  in  with 
a  well  pasted  and  stretched  thin  paper, 
which,  if  the  boards  are  left  open,  will 
draw  them  inwards.  If  the  leather  joint 
is  pasted  down  while  the  board  is  curved, 
the  result  will  be  a  most  unsightly  pro- 
jection on  the  outside.  When  the  joint 
has  been  cleaned  out,  and  the  board  made 
to  lie  flat,  the  leather  should  be  pasted 
down  and  mitred.  The  whole  depth  of 
the  turn-in  of  the  covering  leather  in  the 
joint  must  not  be  removed,  or  it  will  be 
unduly  weakened.  The  mitring  line 
should  not  come  from  the  extreme  corner, 

171 


Mitring     but  rather  farther  down,  and  there   it  is 

Corners  and  Well  to  leave  a  certain  amount  of  overlap 

Filling  m    jn  t|le  jomtj  for  which  purpose  the  edge 

of  the  turn-in  leather  and  the  edge  of  the 

leather  joint  should  be  pared  thin.     After 


n 

o 

FIG.   7 i . 

pasting  down  the  leather  joints  the  boards 
should  be  left  open  till  they  are  dry  (see 
fig.  71).  The  turn-in  and  leather  joint  are 
then  trimmed  out,  leaving  an  even  margin 
of  leather  all  round  the  inside  of  the 
172 


board,  and  the  panel  in  the  centre  filled  in     Mitring 
with  a  piece  of  thick  paper.  Corners  and 

When  corners  and  filling  in  are  dry,  the    Filling  m 
boards  may  be  shut  up,  and  the  book  is 
ready  for  finishing. 

It  is  a  common  practice  to  wash  up  the 
covers  of  books  that  have  become  stained 
with  a  solution  of  oxalic  acid  in  water. 
This  is  a  dangerous  thing  to  do,  and  is 
likely  to  seriously  injure  the  leather. 
Leather,  when  damp,  must  not  be  brought 
in  contact  with  iron  or  steel  tools,  or  it 
may  be  badly  stained. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

Library  Binding — Binding  very  Thin  Books — Scrap- 
Books — Binding  on  Vellum — Books  covered  with 
Embroidery 

LIBRARY    BINDING 
Specifications  III  and  IV 

To  produce  cheaper  bindings,  as  must  be     Library 
done  in  the  case  of  large  libraries,  some     Bmdmg 
alteration  of  design  is  necessary.     Appear- 
ance must  to  some  extent  be  sacrificed  to 
strength  and  durability,  and  not,  as  is  too 

173 


Library  often  the  case,  strength  and  durability 
Binding  sacrificed  to  appearance.  The  essentials 
of  any  good  binding  are,  that  the  sections 
should  be  sound  in  themselves,  and  that 
there  should  be  no  plates  or  odd  sheets 
"  pasted  on,"  or  anything  that  would  pre- 
vent any  leaf  from  opening  right  to  the 
back ;  the  sewing  must  be  thoroughly 
sound ;  the  sewing  materials  of  good 
quality ;  the  slips  firmly  attached  to  the 
boards ;  and  the  leather  fairly  thick  and  of 
a  durable  kind,  although  for  the  sake  of 
cheapness  it  may  be  necessary  to  use  skins 
with  flaws  on  the  surface.  Such  flawed 
skins  cost  half,  or  less  than  half,  the  price 
of  perfect  skins,  and  surface  flaws  do  not 
injure  the  strength  of  the  leather.  By 
sewing  on  tape,  great  flexibility  of  the 
back  is  obtained,  and  much  time,  and  con- 
sequent expense,  in  covering  is  saved.  By 
using  a  French  joint  much  thicker  leather 
than  usual  can  be  used,  with*  correspond- 
ing gain  in  strength. 

To  bind  an  octavo  or  smaller  book  ac- 
cording to  the  specification  given  (III,  page 
307)  ;  first  make  all  sections  sound,  and 
guard  all  plates  or  maps.  Make  end  papers 
with  zigzags.  After  the  sections  have  been 
thoroughly  pressed,  the  book  will  be  ready 

174 


for  marking  up  and  sewing.  In  marking  Library 
up  for  sewing  on  tapes,  two  marks  will  be  Binding 
necessary  for  each  tape.  When  there  are 
several  books  of  the  same  size  to  be  sewn, 
they  may  be  placed  one  above  the  other 
in  the  sewing  press,  and  sewn  on  to  the 
same  tapes.  It  will  be  found  that  the 
volumes  when  sewn  can  easily  be  slid  along 
the  tapes,  which  must  be  long  enough  to 
provide  sufficient  for  the  slips  of  each. 
The  split  boards  may  be  "  made "  of  a 
thin  black  mill-board  with  a  thicker  straw- 
board.  To  "  make  "  a  pair  of  split  boards 
the  pieces  of  straw-  and  mill-board  large 
enough  to  make  the  two  are  got  out,  and 
the  straw-board  well  glued,  except  in  the 
centre,  which  should  previously  be  covered 
with  a  strip  of  thin  mill-board  or  tin  about 
four  inches  wide.  The  strip  is  then  re- 
moved, and  the  thin  black  board  laid  on 
the  glued  straw-board  and  nipped  in  the 
press.  When  dry,  the  made  board  is  cut 
down  the  centre,  which  will  leave  two 
boards  glued  together  all  over  except  for 
two  inches  on  one  side  of  each.  The 
boards  then  are  squared  to  the  book  in  a 
mill-board  machine.  The  back  of  the 
book  is  glued  up,  and  in  the  ordinary  way 
rounded  and  backed.  The  edges  may  be 

I7S 


Library  cut  with  a  guillotine.  The  ends  of  the 
Binding  tapes  are  glued  on  the  waste  end  paper, 
which  should  be  cut  off  about  an  inch  and 
a  half  from  the  back.  The  split  boards 
are  then  opened  and  glued,  and  the  waste 
end  papers  with  slips  attached  are  placed 
in  them  (see  fig.  72),  and  the  book  nipped 


FIG.  72. 

in  the  press.  To  form  a  "  French  joint" 
the  boards  should  be  kept  about  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  from  the  back  of  the  book. 
The  book  is  then  ready  for  covering. 
The  leather  must  not  be  pared  too  thin,  as 
the  French  joint  will  give  plenty  of  play 
and  allow  the  use  of  much  thicker  leather 
than  usual.  If  time  and  money  can  be 
spared,  headbands  can  be  worked,  but 
they  are  not  absolutely  necessary,  and  a 
piece  of  string  may  be  inserted  into  the 
turning  of  the  leather  at  head  and  tail  in 
the  place  of  them.  When  the  book  is 
176 


covered,  a  piece  of  string  should  be  tied     Library 
round  the  joints,  and  the  whole  given  a     Binding 
nip    in    the    press.     The   corners   of  the 
boards  should  be  protected  by  small  tips 
of  vellum  or  parchment.     The  sides  may 
be  covered  with  good  paper,  which  will 
wear  quite  as  well  as  cloth,  look  better, 
and  cost  less. 

The  lettering  of  library  books  is  very 
important  (see  Chapter  XV). 


BINDING    VERY    THIN    BOOKS 

Books  consisting  of  only  one  section  Binding  very 
may  be  bound  as  follows: — A  sheet  of  Thin  Books 
paper  to  match  the  book,  and  two  coloured 
sheets  for  end  papers,  are  folded  round 
the  section,  and  a  "  waste "  paper  put 
over  all.  A  strip  of  linen  is  pasted  to 
the  back  of  the  waste,  and  the  whole  sewn 
together  by  stitching  through  the  fold. 
The  waste  may  be  cut  off  and  inserted 
with  the  linen  in  a  split  board,  as  for 
library  bindings.  The  back  edges  of  the 
board  should  be  filed  thin,  and  should  not 
be  placed  quite  up  to  the  back,  to  allow 
for  a  little  play  in  the  joints. 

The  leather  is  put  on  in  the  ordinary 
12  177 


Binding  very  way,  except  that  the  linen  at  the  head  and 
Thin  Books  tail  must  be  slit  a  little  to  allow  for  the 
turn  in.  If  waterproof  sheets  are  first 
inserted,  the  ends  may  be  pasted,  the 
boards  shut,  and  the  book  nipped  in  the 
press.  By  substituting  a  piece  of  thin 
leather  for  the  outside  coloured  paper,  a 
leather  joint  can  be  made. 


SCRAP-BOOKS 


Scrap-Books  Scrap-books,  into  which  autograph  let- 
ters, sketches,  or  other  papers  can  be 
pasted,  may  be  made  as  follows  : — Enough 
paper  of  good  quality  is  folded  up  to  the 
size  desired,  and  pieces  of  the  same  paper, 
of  the  same  height,  and  about  two  inches 
wide,  are  folded  down  the  centre  and 
inserted  between  the  backs  of  the  larger 
sheets,  as  shown  at  fig.  73.  It  is  best  not 
to  insert  these  smaller  pieces  in  the  centre 
of  the  section,  as  they  would  be  trouble- 
some in  sewing.  If,  after  sewing,  the 
book  is  filled  up  with  waste  paper  laid 
between  the  leaves,  it  will  make  it  man- 
ageable while  being  forwarded. 

It  is  best  to  use  a  rather  darkly-toned 
or  coloured  paper,  as,   if  a  quite  white 
paper  is  used,  any  letters  or  papers  that 
178 


have    become    soiled,    will    look    unduly  Scrap-Books 
dirty. 

Autograph  letters  may  be  mounted  in 
the    following    ways : — If    the    letter    is 


FIG. 


written  upon  both  sides  of  a  single  leaf, 
it  may  be  either  "  inlaid,"  or  guarded,  as 
shown  at  fig.  74,  A.  A  letter  on  a  folded 
sheet  of  notepaper  should  have  the  folds 
strengthened  with  a  guard  of  strong  thin 
paper,  and  be  attached  by  a  guard  made, 
as  shown  at  fig.  74,  B  ;  or  if  on  very  heavy 
paper,  by  a  double  guard,  as  shown  at 


FIG.    74. 

fig.  74,  C.     Torn  edges  of  letters  may  be 
strengthened  with  thin  Japanese  paper. 

Thin  paper,  written  or  printed  only  on 
one  side,  may  be  mounted  on  a  page  of 
the  book.  It  is  better  to  attach  these  by 

179 


Scrap-Books  their  extreme  edges  only,  as  if  pasted 
down  all  over  they  may  cause  the  leaves 
to  curl  up. 

Letters  or  any  writing  or  drawing  in 
lead  pencil  should  be  fixed  with  size  before 
being  inserted. 

Silver  prints  of  photographs  are  best 
mounted  with  some  very  quick-drying 
paste,  such  as  that  sold  for  the  purpose 
by  the  photographic  dealers.  If  the  leaf 
on  which  they  are  mounted  is  slightly 
damped  before  the  photograph  is  pasted 
down,  it  will  be  less  likely  to  cockle.  If 
this  is  done,  waterproof  sheets  should  be 
put  on  each  side  of  the  leaf  while  it  dries. 
If  photographs  are  attached  by  the  edges 
only,  they  will  not  be  so  liable  to  draw 
the  paper  on  which  they  are  mounted ; 
but  sometimes  they  will  not  lie  flat  them- 
selves. 

In  cases  where  very  thick  letters  or 
papers  have  to  be  pasted  in,  a  few  more 
leaves  of  the  book  should  be  cut  out,  to 
make  a  corresponding  thickness  at  the 
back. 

VELLUM    BINDINGS 

Vellum          Vellum    covers   may   be   limp   without 
Bindings     boards,  and  merely  held  in  place  by  the 
1 80 


slips  being  laced  through  them,  or  they  Vellum 
may  be  pasted  down  on  boards  in  much  Bindings 
the  same  way  as  leather. 

If  the  edges  of  a  book  for  limp  vellum 
binding  are  to  be  trimmed  or  gilt,  that 
should  be  done  before  sewing.  For  the 
ends  a  folded  piece  of  thin  vellum  may 
replace  the  paste-down  paper.  The  sewing 
should  be  on  strips  of  vellum.  The  back 
is  left  square  after  glueing,  and  headbands 
are  worked  as  for  leather  binding,  or  may 
be  worked  on  strips  of  leather,  with  ends 
left  long  enough  to  lace  into  the  vellum 
(see  p.  151).  The  back  and  headbands 
are  lined  with  leather,  and  the  book  is 
ready  for  the  cover. 

A  piece  of  vellum  should  be  cut  out 
large  enough  to  cover  the  book,  and  to 
leave  a  margin  of  an  inch  and  a  half  all 
round.  This  is  marked  with  a  folder  on 
the  under  side,  as  shown  at  fig.  75,  A. 
Spaces  i  and  1  are  the  size  of  the  sides  of 
the  book  with  surrounding  squares  ;  space 
3  is  the  width  of  the  back,  and  space  4 
the  width  for  the  overlaps  on  the  fore-edge. 
The  corners  are  cut,  as  shown  at  5,  and 
the  edges,  are  folded  over,  as  at  B.  The 
overlap  4  is  then  turned  over,  and  the 
back  folded,  as  at  C.  The  slips  are  now 

181 


Vellum     laced  through  slits  made  in  the  vellum. 

Bindings 


A 


B 


FIG.   75. 

A  piece  of  loose,  toned  paper  may  be  put 
182 


inside  the  cover  to  prevent  any  marks  on 
the  book  from  showing  through ;  and 
pieces  of  silk  ribbon  of  good  quality  are 
laced  in  as  shown,  going  through  both 
cover  and  vellum  ends,  if  there  are  any, 
and  are  left  with  ends  long  enough  to  tie 
(see  fig.  76). 


Vellum 
Bindings 


FIG.    76. 

If  paper  ends  are  used,  the  silk  tape  need 
only  be  laced  through  the  cover,  and  the 
end  paper  pasted  over  it  on  the  inside. 

Another  simple  way  of  keeping  a  vellum 
book  shut  is  shown  at  fig.  77.  A  bead  is 
attached  to  a  piece  of  gut  laced  into  the 
vellum,  and  a  loop  of  catgut  is  laced  in 
the  other  side,  and  looped  over  the  bead 
as  shown. 

If  the  book  is  to  have  stiff  boards,  and 

183 


Vellum     the  vellum  is  to  be  pasted  to  them,  it  is 
Bindings    best  to  sew  the  sections  on  tapes  or  vellum 
slips,  to  back  the  book  as  for  leather,  and 
to  insert  the  ends  of  the  slips  in  a  split 
board,  leaving  a  French  joint,  as 
described    for    library   bindings. 
Vellum  is  very  stiff,  and,  if  it  is 
pasted  directly  to  the  back,  the 
book  would  be  hard   to   open. 
'''    It  is  best  in  this  case  to  use  what 
is  known  as  a  hollow  back. 

To  make  a  hollow  back,  a  piece  of  stout 
paper  is  taken  which  measures  once  the 
length  of  the  back  and  three  times  the 
width.  This  is  folded  in  three.  The 
centre  portion  is  glued  to  the  back  and 
well  rubbed  down,  and  the  overlapping 
edges  turned  back  and  glued  one  to  the 
other  (fig.  78).  This  will  leave  a  flat,  hollow 
casing,  formed  by  the  single  paper  glued  to 
the  back  of  the  book  and  the  double  paper 
to  which  the  vellum  may  be  attached.  Or 
it  is  better  to  line  up  the  back  with  leather, 
and  to  place  a  piece  of  thick  paper  the  size 
of  the  back  on  to  the  pasted  vellum  where 
the  back  will  be  when  the  book  is  covered. 
When  the  book  is  ready  for  covering, 
the  vellum  should  be  cut  out  and  lined 
with  paper.  In  lining  vellum  the  paste 
184 


must  be  free  from  lumps,  and  great  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  leave  brush  marks. 
To  avoid  this,  when  the  lining  paper  has 
been  pasted  it  can  be  laid,  paste  down- 
wards, on  a  piece  of  waste  paper  and  quickly 
pulled  up  again  ;  this 
should  remove  surplus 
paste  and  get  rid  of 
any  marks  left  by  the 
brush.  When  the  vellum 
has  been  lined  with  paper, 
it  should  be  given  a  light 
nip  in  the  press  between 
blotting-paper,  and  while 
still  damp  it  is  pasted,  the 
book  covered,  and  the 
corners  mitred.  A  piece 
of  thin  string  is  tied 
round  the  head-caps  and 
pressed  into  the  French 
joint. 

Waterproof  sheets  are  placed  inside  the 
covers,  and  the  book  then  nipped  in  the 
press  and  left  to  dry  under  a  light  weight. 
If  the  vellum  is  very  stiff  and  difficult  to 
turn  in,  it  may  be  moistened  with  a  little 
warm  water  to  soften  it. 

Books  with  raised  bands  have  sometimes 
been  covered  with  vellum,  but  the  back 

185 


Vellum 
Bindings 


FIG. 


Vellum  becomes  so  stiff  and  hard,  that  this  method, 
Bindings  though  it  looks  well  enough,  cannot  be 
recommended.  Vellum  is  a  durable 
material,  and  can  be  had  of  good  quality, 
but  it  is  so  easily  influenced  by  changes  of 
temperature,  that  it  is  rather  an  unsuit- 
able material  for  most  bindings. 

BOOKS    COVERED    WITH    EMBROIDERY 
AND    WOVEN    MATERIAL 

Books  To    cover    a    book    with    embroidered 

Covered     material     bind    it    with    split    boards,    a 
™.        French  joint,  and  a  hollow  back,  as  de- 
an™ Woven  scriDed  for  vellum  (see  fig.  78).     Glue  the 
Material     back    of  the  book    with    thin    glue  well 
worked  up,  and  turning  in  the  head  and 
tail  of  the  embroidery,  put  the  book  down 
on  it  so  that  the  back  will  come  exactly  in 
the    right    place.     Press    down    the    em- 
broidery with  the  hand  to  make  sure  that 
it  sticks.     When  it  is  firmly  attached  to 
the  back,  first  one  board  and  then  the  other 
should  be  glued,  and  the  embroidery  laid 
down  on  it.      Lastly,  the  edges  are  glued 
and  stuck  down  on  the  inside  of  the  board, 
and  the  corners   mitred.     Velvet  or  any 
other  thick  material  can  be  put  down  in 
the    same    way.      For  very  thin  material 
186 


that  the  glue  would  penetrate   and   soil,      Books 
the  cover  should  be  left  loose,  and  only     Covered 
attached  where  it  turns  in.     A  loose  lining       J^J* 
of  good  paper  may  be  put  between   the  ai^j  Woven 
book  and  the  cover.  Material 

The  inside  corners  where  the  cover  has 
been  cut  should  be  neatly  sewn  up.  The 
edges  of  the  boards  and  head-caps  may  be 
protected  all  round  with  some  edging 
worked  in  metal  thread.  It  is  well  in 
embroidering  book  covers  to  arrange  for 
some  portion  of  the  pattern  to  be  of  raised 
metal  stitches,  forming  bosses  that  will 
protect  the  surface  from  wear. 

Should  any  glue  chance  to  get  on  the 
surface,  the  cover  should  be  held  in  the 
steam  of  a  kettle  and  the  glue  wiped  off, 
and  the  cover  again  steamed. 


187 


CHAPTER   XIV 

Decoration — Tools — Finishing — Tooling  on 
Vellum — Inlaying  on  Leather 

DECORATION    OF    BINDING TOOLS 

Decoration  THE  most  usual,  and  perhaps  the  most 

of  Binding   characteristic,    way    of    decorating    book 

-Tools     covers  is  by  «  tooling."     Tooling  is  the 

impression    of    heated    (finishing)    tools. 

Finishing  tools  are  stamps  of  metal  that 


J 


FIG.    79. 

have  a  device  cut  on  the  face,  and  are 
held  in  wooden  handles  (fig.  79). 

Tooling  may  either  be  blind  tooling, 
that  is,  a  simple  impression  of  the  hot  tools, 
or  gold  tooling,  in  which  the  impression 
of  the  tool  is  left  in  gold  on  the  leather. 

Tools  for  blind  tooling  are  best  "die- 
sunk,"  that  is,  cut  like  a  seal.  The 
"  sunk "  part  of  the  face  of  the  tool, 
which  may  be  more  or  less  modelled, 
forms  the  pattern,  and  the  higher  part 

188 


— Tools 


depresses  the  leather  to   form  a  ground.   Decoration 
In  tools  for  gold  tooling-    the  surface  of  of  Binding 

T«_  _! 

the  tool  gives  the  pattern. 

Tools  may  be  either  complex  or  simple 
in  design,  that  is  to  say,  each   tool  may 
form     a     complete 
design     with      en- 
closing   border,   as 
the  lower  ones  on 


page  323,  or  it  may 
be  only  one  element 
of  a  design,  as  at 
fig.  100.  Lines  may 
be  run  with  a  fillet 
(see  fig.  88),  or 
made  with  gouges 
or  pallets. 

Gouges  are 
curved  line  tools. 
They  are  made  in 
sets  of  arcs  of  con- 


B 

FIG.    80. 


centric  circles  (see  fig.  80,  A).  The  portion 
of  the  curves  cut  off  by  the  dotted  line  C 
will  make  a  second  set  with  flatter  curves. 
Gouges  are  used  for  tooling  curved  lines. 
A  "  pallet "  may  be  described  as  a  seg- 
ment of  a  roll  or  fillet  set  in  a  handle,  and 
used  chiefly  for  putting  lines  or  other  orna- 
ments across  the  backs  of  books  (see  fig. 

189 


— Tools 


Decoration  81).     A  set  of  one-line  pallets  is  shown  at 
of  Binding    fig.  80,  B. 

Fillets  are  cut  with  two  or  more  lines 
on  the  edge.     Although  the  use  of  double- 
line  fillets  saves  time,  I  have  found  that  a 
few  single-line  fillets  with  edges  of  different 
gauges  are  sufficient  for  running  all  straight 
lines,  and  that    the  advantage 
of  being  able  to  alter  the  dis- 
tances   between     any    parallel 
lines    is    ample    compensation 
for  the  extra  trouble  involved 
by  their  use.     In  addition  to 
the    rigid    stamps,  an    endless 
pattern    for    either    blind    or 
gold  tooling  may  be  engraved 
on  the  circumference  of  a  roll, 
and  impressed  on   the  leather 
by  wheeling. 

The  use  of  a  roll  in  finishing  dates  from 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  some 
satisfactory  bindings  were  decorated  with 
its  aid.  The  ease  with  which  it  can  be 
used  has  led  in  modern  times  to  its  abuse, 
and  I  hardly  know  of  a  single  instance  of 
a  modern  binding  on  which  rolls  have  been 
used  for  the  decoration  with  satisfactory 
results.  The  gain  in  time  and  trouble  is 
at  the  expense  of  freedom  and  life  in  the 
190 


FIG.    81. 


design  ;  and  for  extra  binding  it  is  better   Decoration 
to  build  up  a  pattern  out  of  small  tools  of  of  Binding 
simple  design,  which  can  be  arranged  in        Tools 
endless  variety,  than  to  use  rolls. 

Tools  for  hand-tooling  must  not  be  too 
large,  or  it  will  be  impossible  to  obtain 
clear  impressions.  One  inch  square  for 
blind  tools,  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
for  gold  tools,  is  about  the  maximum  size 
for  use  with  any  certainty  and  comfort. 
Tools  much  larger  than  this  have  to  be 
worked  with  the  aid  of  a  press,  and  are 
called  blocks. 


FINISHING 

The  first  thing  the  finisher  does  to  a    Finishing 
book    is    to    go    over    the    back    with     a 
polisher  and  smooth  out  any  irregularities. 

Two  forms  of  polisher  are  shown  at 
fig.  82.  The  lower  one  is  suitable  for 
polishing  backs  and  inside  margins,  and 
the  upper  for  sides.  Polishers  must  be 
used  warm,  but  not  too  hot,  or  the 
leather  may  be  scorched,  and  they  must 
be  kept  moving  on  the  leather.  Before 
using  they  should  be  rubbed  bright  on 
a  piece  of  the  finest  emery  paper,  and 
polished  on  a  piece  of  leather.  New 

191 


Finishing  polishers  often  have  sharp  edges  that 
would  mark  the  leather.  These  must 
be  rubbed  down  with  files  and  emery- 
paper. 

Leathers  with  a  prominent  grained  sur- 
face, such  as  morocco,  seal  or  pig  skin, 
may  either  have  the  grain  rough  or 
crushed  flat.  If  there  is  to  be  much 
finishing,  the  grain  had  better  be  crushed, 
but  for  large  books  that  are  to  have  only 


FIG.  82. 


a  small  amount  of  finishing,  the  grain  is 
best  left  unflattened. 

If  the  grain  of  the  leather  is  to  be 
"  crushed,"  it  may  be  done  at  this  stage. 
To  do  this,  one  board  at  a  time  is  damped 
with  a  sponge  and  put  in  the  standing- 
press,  with  a  pressing  plate  on  the  grained 
side,  and  a  pad  of  blotting-paper,  or  some 
such  yielding  substance,  on  the  other 
(see  fig.  83).  The  press  is  then  screwed 
up  tight,  and  the  board  left  for  a  short 

192 


time.  For  some  leathers  this  operation  is 
best  done  after  the  binding  has  been 
finished  and  varnished,  in  which  case,  of 
course,  the  boards  cannot  be  damped 
before  pressing.  No  flexibly  sewn  book 
should  be  subject  to  great  pressure  after 
it  has  been  covered,  or 
the  leather  on  the  back 
may  crinkle  up  and 
become  detached. 

The  next  thing  will 
be  to  decide  what 
lettering  and  what 
decoration,  if  any,  is 
to  be  put  on  the  vol- 
ume. The  lettering 
should  be  made  out  first  (see  page  215). 
If  the  book  is  to  be  at  all  elaborately  de- 
corated, paper  patterns  must  be  made  out, 
as  described  in  Chapter  XVI. 

For  tooling  the  back,  the  book  is  held 
in  the  finishing  press  between  a  pair  of 
backing  boards  lined  with  leather  (see 
fig.  84),  and  the  paper  pattern  put  across 
the  back,  with  the  ends  either  slightly 
pasted  to  the  backing  boards,  or  caught 
between  them  and  the  book. 

For  the  sides,  the  pattern  is  very  slightly 
pasted    on    to    the    leather    at    the    four 
13  193 


Finishing 


Finishing  corners.  The  book  is  then  put  in  the 
finishing  press,  with  the  board  to  be  tooled 
open  and  flat  on  the  cheek  of  the  press, 
unless  the  book  is  a  large  one,  when  it  is 
easier  to  tool  the  sides  out  of  the  press. 

The  selected  tools,  which  should  be 
ready  on  the  stove  (see  fig.  85),  are  one 
at  a  time  cooled  on  a  wet  pad,  and  then 
pressed  in  their  former  impressions  upon 
the  paper.  The  degree  of  heat  required 


FIG.    84. 


varies  a  good  deal  with  the  leather  used, 
and  will  only  be  learned  by  experience. 
It  is  better  to  have  the  tool  too  cool  than 
too  hot,  as  it  is  easy  to  deepen  impressions 
after  the  paper  is  removed  ;  but  if  they  are 
already  too  deep,  or  are  burnt,  it  will  be 
impossible  to  finish  clearly.  Generally 
speaking,  tools  should  hiss  very  slightly 
when  put  on  the  cooling  pad.  In  cooling, 
194 


Finishing 


FIG.    85. — Finishing  Stove 

care  must  be  taken  to  put  the  shank  of 
the  tools  on  to  the  wet  pad,  as,  if  the  end 


Finishing  only  is  cooled,  the  heat  is  apt  to  run 
down  again,  and  the  tool  will  still  be  too 
hot. 

Before  removing  the  paper,  one  corner 
at  a  time  should  be  lifted  up,  and  the 
leather  examined  to  see  that  no  part  of 
the  pattern  has  been  missed. 

In  some  patterns  where  the  design  is 
close,  or  in  which  the  background  is 
dotted  in,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  blind 
in  every  leaf  and  dot  through  the  paper. 
If  the  lines  with  perhaps  the  terminal 
leaves  are  blinded  in,  the  rest  can  be  better 
worked  directly  through  the  gold.  This 
method  implies  the  "  glairing  in "  of  the 
whole  surface.  It  is  not  suitable  for  open 
patterns,  where  the  glaire  might  show  on 
the  surface  of  the  leather. 

If  the  book  is  only  to  have  lines,  or 
some  simple  straight  line  pattern,  it  is 
often  easier  to  mark  it  up  without  the 
paper,  with  a  straight-edge  and  folder.  In 
panelling  a  back,  the  side  lines  of  all  the 
panels  should  be  marked  in  at  the  same 
time  with  a  folder,  working  against  the 
straight-edge,  held  firmly  at  the  side  of 
the  back.  If  the  panels  are  worked  sepa- 
rately, it  is  difficult  to  get  the  side  lines 
squarely  above  each  other.  The  lines  at 

196 


the  top  and  bottom  of  the  panel  may  be  Finishing 
marked  in  with  a  folder,  guided  by  a 
piece  of  stiff  vellum  held  squarely  across 
the  back.  If  there  are  lines  to  be  run 
round  the  board,  they  can  be  marked  in 
with  a  pair  of  dividers  guided  by  the  edge 
of  the  board,  except  those  at  the  back. 
These  must  be  measured  from  the  fore- 
edge  of  the  board  and  run  in  with  straight- 
edge and  folder. 

When  straight  lines  occur  in  patterns 
that  are  blinded  through  the  paper,  it  will 
be  enough  if  the  ends  only  are  marked 
through  with  a  small  piece  of  straight  line, 
and  the  lines  completed  with  straight-edge 
and  folder,  after  the  paper  has  been  re- 
moved. 

Unless  the  finisher  has  had  considerable 
experience,  it  is  best  to  deepen  all  folder 
.lines  by  going  over  them  in  blind  with  a 
fillet  or  piece  of  straight  line. 

When  the  pattern  has  been  worked  in 
blind,  either  through  a  paper  pattern  or 
directly  on  to  the  leather  with  the  tools, 
and  any  inlays  stuck  on  (see  page  213),  the 
cover  should  be  well  washed  with  clean 
water.  Some  finishers  prefer  to  use 
common  vinegar  or  diluted  acetic  acid  for 
washing  up  books.  If  vinegar  is  used  it 

197 


Finishing  must  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  must  not 
contain  any  sulphuric  acid.  Cheap,  crude 
vinegar  is  certain  to  be  injurious  to  the 
leather.  Porous  leather,  such  as  calf  or 
sheep  skin,  will  need  to  be  washed  over 
with  paste-water,  and  then  sized. 

Paste-water  is  paste  and  water  well 
beaten  up  to  form  a  milky  liquid,  and  is 
applied  to  the  leather  as  evenly  as  possible 
with  a  sponge.  When  the  paste-water  is 
dry,  the  leather  should  be  washed  with  size. 
Size  can  be  made  by  boiling  down  vellum 
cuttings,  or  by  dissolving  gelatine  or  isin- 
glas  in  warm  water. 

For  the  less  porous  leathers,  such  as 
morocco,  seal,  or  pig  skin,  no  paste-water 
or  size  is  necessary,  unless  the  skin  happens 
to  be  a  specially  open  one,  or  the  cover 
has  been  cut  from  the  flank  or  belly. 
Then  it  is  best  to  put  a  little  paste  in  the 
vinegar  or  water  used  for  washing  up. 
When  the  leather  is  nearly,  but  not  quite, 
dry  the  impressions  of  the  tools  must  be 
painted  with  glaire.  Finishers'  glaire  may 
be  made  from  the  white  of  eggs  well  beaten 
up,  diluted  with  about  half  as  much  vinegar, 
and  allowed  tt>  settle.  Some  finishers 
prefer  to  use  old,  evil-smelling  glaire,  but 
provided  it  is  a  day  old,  and  has  been  well 

198 


beaten   up,   fresh   glaire   will   work   quite    Finishing 
well. 

The  impressions  of  any  heavy  or  solid 
tools  should  be  given  a  second  coat  of 
glaire  when  the  first  has  ceased  to  be 
"  tacky,"  and  if  the  leather  is  at  all 
porous,  all  impressions  had  better  have  a 
second  coat. 

As  glaire  is  apt  to  show  and  disfigure 
the  leather  when  dry,  it  is  best  to  use  it  as 
sparingly  as  possible,  and,  excepting  where 
the  pattern  is  very  close,  to  confine  it  to 
the  impressions  of  the  tools.  It  is  not  at 
all  an  uncommon  thing  to  see  the  effect 
of  an  otherwise  admirably  tooled  binding 
spoilt  by  a  dark  margin  round  the  tools, 
caused  by  the  careless  use  of  glaire.  Glaire 
should  not  be  used  unless  it  is  quite  liquid 
and  clean.  Directly  it  begins  to  get  thick 
it  should  be  strained  or  thrown  away. 

The  finisher  should  not  glaire  in  more 
than  he  can  tool  the  same  day.  When  the 
glaire  has  ceased  to  be  "  tacky,"  the  gold 
is  laid  on. 

At  first  it  will  be  found  difficult  to 
manage  gold  leaf.  The  essential  condi- 
tions are,  that  there  should  be  no  draught, 
and  that  the  cushion  and  knife  should  be 
quite  free  from  grease.  The  gold  cushion 

199 


Finishing  and  knife  are  shown  at  fig.  86.  A  little 
powdered  bath  -  brick  rubbed  into  the 
cushion  will  make  it  easier  to  cut  the 
gold  cleanly.  The  blade  of  the  gold  knife 
should  never  be  touched  with  the  hand, 
and  before  using  it,  both  sides  should  be 
rubbed  on  the  cushion.  A  book  of  gold 
is  laid  open  on  the  cushion,  and  a  leaf  of 
gold  is  lifted  up  on  the  gold  knife,  which 
is  slipped  under  it,  and  turned  over  on  to 
the  cushion.  A  light  breath  exactly  in 


FIG.  86. 


the  centre  of  the  sheet  should  make  it  lie 
flat,  when  it  may  be  cut  into  pieces  of  any 
size  with  a  slightly  sawing  motion  of  the 
knife.  The  book  with  the  pattern  ready 
prepared,  and  the  glaire  sufficiently  dry 
(not  sticky),  is  rubbed  lightly  with  a  small 
piece  of  cotton-wool  greased  with  a  little 
cocoanut  oil.  The  back  of  the  hand  is 
greased  in  the  same  way,  and  a  pad  of 
clean  cotton-wool  is  held  in  the  right  hand, 
and  having  been  made  as  flat  as  possible  by 
200 


being  pressed  on  the  table,  is  drawn  over  Finishing 
the  back  of  the  hand.  This  should  make 
it  just  greasy  enough  to  pick  up  the  gold, 
but  not  too  greasy  to  part  with  it  readily 
when  pressed  on  the  book.  As  little  grease 
as  possible  should  be  used  on  the  book,  as 
an  excess  is  apt  to  stain  the  leather  and  to 
make  the  gold  dull.  After  experiment  it 
has  been  found  that  cocoanut  oil  stains  the 
leather  less  than  any  other  grease  in  com- 


FIG.  87. 

mon  use  by  bookbinders,  and  is  more 
readily  washed  out  by  benzine. 

If  the  gold  cracks,  or  is  not  solid  when 
pressed  on  the  book,  a  second  thickness 
should  be  used.  This  will  stay  down  if 
the  under  piece  is  lightly  breathed  upon. 

For  narrow  strips  of  gold  for  lines,  a 
little  pad  covered  with  soft  leather  may 
be  made,  as  in  fig.  87. 

It  will  be  found  of  advantage  to  first 
use  the  bottom  leaf  of  gold  in  the  book 

20 1 


Finishing  ancj  then  to  begin  at  the  top  and  work 
through,  or  else  the  bottom  leaf  will 
almost  certainly  be  found  to  be  damaged 
by  the  time  it  is  reached.  The  gold  used 
should  be  as  nearly  pure  as  it  can  be  got. 
The  gold-beaters  say  that  they  are  unable 
to  beat  pure  gold  as  thin  as  is  usual  for 
gold  leaf;  but  the  quite  pure  gold  is  a 
better  colour  than  when  alloyed,  and  the 
additional  thickness,  although  costly,  re- 
sults in  a  more  solid  impression  of  the 
tools. 

The  cost  of  a  book  of  twenty-four  leaves 
three  and  a  half  inches  square  of  English  gold 
leaf  of  good  ordinary  quality  is  from  is.  3d. 
to  is.  6d.,  whereas  the  cost  of  a  book  of 
double  thick  pure  gold  leaf  is  35.  to  35.  6d. 
For  tooled  work  it  is  worth  paying  the  in- 
creased price  for  the  sake  of  the  advantages 
in  colour  and  solidity ;  but  for  lines  and 
edges,  which  use  up  an  immense  amount 
of  gold,  the  thinner  and  cheaper  gold  may 
quite  well  be  used. 

Besides  pure  gold  leaf,  gold  alloyed  with 
various  metals  to  change  its  colour  can  be 
had.  None  of  the  alloys  keep  their  colour 
as  well  as  pure  gold,  and  some  of  them, 
such  as  those  alloyed  with  copper  for  red 
gold,  and  with  silver  for  pale  gold,  tarnish 

202 


very  quickly.     These  last  are  not  to  be    Finishing 
recommended. 

For  silver  tooling  aluminium  leaf  may 
be  used,  as  silver  leaf  tarnishes  very  quickly. 

When  the  gold  is  pressed  into  the  im- 
pressions of  the  tools  with  the  pad  of 
cotton-wool,  they  should  be  plainly  visible 
through  it. 

The  pattern  must  now  be  worked 
through  the  gold  with  the  hot  tools. 
The  tools  are  taken  from  the  stove,  and 
if  too  hot  cooled  on  a  pad  as  for  blinding- 
in.  The  heat  required  to  leave  the  gold 
tooling  solid  and  bright  and  the  impres- 
sions clear  will  vary  for  different  leathers, 
and  even  for  different  skins  of  the  same 
leather.  For  trial  a  tool  may  be  laid  on 
the  pad  until  it  ceases  to  hiss,  and  one  or 
two  impressions  worked  with  it.  If  the 
gold  fails  to  stick,  the  heat  may  be  slightly 
increased. 

If  the  leather  is  slightly  damp  from  the 
preparation  the  tools  will  usually  work 
better,  and  less  heat  is  required  than  if  it 
has  been  prepared  for  some  time  and  has 
got  dry. 

Before  using,  the  faces  of  all  tools  must 
be  rubbed  bright  on  the  flesh  side  of  a 
piece  of  leather.  It  is  impossible  to  tool 

203 


Finishing  brightly  with  dirty  tools.  A  tool  should 
be  held  in  the  right  hand,  with  the  thumb 
'  on  the  top  of  the  handle,  and  steadied  with 
the  thumb  or  first  finger  of  the  left  hand. 
The  shoulder  should  be  brought  well 
over  the  tool,  and  the  upper  part  of  the 
body  used  as  a  press.  If  the  weight  of 
the  body  is  used  in  finishing,  the  tools 
can  be  worked  with  far  greater  firmness 
and  certainty,  and  with  less  fatigue,  than  if 
the  whole  work  is  done  with  the  muscles 
of  the  arms. 

Large  and  solid  tools  will  require  all 
the  weight  that  can  be  put  on  them,  and 
even  then  the  gold  will  often  fail  to  stick 
with  one  impression.  Tools  with  small 
surfaces,  such  as  gouges  and  dots,  must 
not  be  worked  too  heavily,  or  the  surface 
of  the  leather  may  be  cut. 

To  strike  a  large  or  solid  tool,  it  should 
first  be  put  down  flat,  and  then  slightly 
rocked  from  side  to  side  and  from  top  to 
bottom,  but  must  not  be  twisted  on  the 
gold. 

A  tool  may  be  struck  from  whichever 
side  the  best "  sight  "  can  be  got,  and  press 
and  book  turned  round  to  the  most  con- 
venient position. 

It  is  difficult  to  impress  some   tools, 

204 


such  as  circular  flower  tools,  twice  in  Finishing 
exactly  the  same  place.  Such  tools  should 
have  a  mark  on  one  side  as  a  guide.  This 
should  always  be  kept  in  the  same  position 
when  blinding-in  and  tooling,  and  so  make 
it  possible  to  impress  a  second  time  with- 
out "  doubling."  An  impression  is  said 
to  be  "  doubled  "  when  the  tool  has  been 
twisted  in  striking,  or  one  impression  does 
not  fall  exactly  over  the  other. 

The  hot  tool  should  not  be  held  hover- 
ing over  the  impression  long,  or  the  pre- 
paration will  be  dried  up  before  the  tool 
is  struck.  Tooling  will  generally  be 
brighter  if  the  tools  are  struck  fairly 
sharply,  and  at  once  removed  from  the 
leather,  than  if  they  are  kept  down  a  long 
time. 

To  "  strike  "  dots,  the  book  should  be 
turned  with  the  head  to  the  worker,  and 
the  tool  held  with  the  handle  inclining 
slightly  towards  him.  This  will  make 
them  appear  bright  when  the  book  is  held 
the  right  way  up. 

Gouges  must  be  "  sighted "  from  the 
inside  of  the  curve,  and  struck  evenly, 
or  the  points  may  cut  into  the  leather. 
Short  straight  lines  may  be  put  in  with 
pieces  of  line,  and  longer  ones  with  a  fillet. 

205 


Finishing  A  one  line  fillet  is  shown  at  fig.  88  ; 
the  space  filed  out  of  the  circumference 
is  to  enable  lines  to  be  joined  neatly  at  the 
corners.  That  the  lines  may  be  clearly 
visible  through  the  gold,  the  book  should 
be  placed  so  that  the  light  comes  from  the 
left  hand  of  the  worker  and  across  the 
line.  It  is  well  to  have  a  basin  of  water 
in  which  to  cool  fillets,  as  there  is  so 


FIG.    88. 

much  metal  in  them,  that  the  damp  sponge 
or  cotton  used  for  cooling  tools  would 
very  rapidly  be  dried  up.  When  the  fillet 
has  been  cooled,  the  edge  should  be  rubbed 
on  the  cleaning  pad,  and  the  point  exactly 
adjusted  to  the  corner  of  the  line  to  be 
run  (see  fig.  88).  The  fillet  is  then  run 
along  the  line  with  even  pressure. 

For  slightly  curved  lines,  a  very  small 
fillet  may  be  used. 

206 


When  all  the  prepared  part  of  a  pattern  Finishing 
has  been  tooled,  it  is  well  rubbed  to  re- 
move the  loose  gold  with  a  slightly  greasy 
rag,  or  with  a  piece  of  bottle  indiarubber 
which  has  been  softened  in  paraffin.  After 
a  time  the  rubber  or  rag  may  be  sold  to 
the  gold-beater,  who  recovers  the  gold. 
To  prepare  indiarubber  for  cleaning  off 
gold,  a  piece  of  bottle  rubber  is  cut  into 
small  pieces  and  soaked  in  paraffin  for  some 
hours.  This  should  cause  the  pieces  to 
reunite  into  a  soft  lump.  This  can  be  used 
until  it  is  yellow  with  gold  throughout. 

When  all  free  gold  is  rubbed  off, 
the  finisher  can  see  where  the  tooling  is 
imperfect.  Impressions  which  are  not 
"  solid  "  must  be  reglaired,  have  fresh  gold 
laid  on,  and  be  retooled.  But  if,  as  will 
sometimes  happen  with  the  best  finishers, 
the  gold  has  failed  to  stick  properly  any- 
where, it  is  best  to  wash  the  whole  with 
water  or  vinegar,  and  prepare  afresh. 

As  an  excess  of  grease  is  apt  to  dull 
the  gold  and  soil  the  leather,  it  is  better 
to  use  it  very  sparingly  when  laying  on 
fresh  gold  for  mending.  For  patching, 
benzine  may  be  used  instead  of  grease. 
When  the  gold  is  picked  up  on  the 
cotton-wool  pad,  rapidly  go  over  the 

207 


Finishing  leather  with  wool  soaked  in  benzine,  and 
at  once  lay  down  the  gold.  Benzine  will 
not  hold  the  gold  long  enough  for  much 
tooling,  but  it  will  answer  for  about  half- 
an-hour,  and  give  plenty  of  time  for 
patching. 

Imperfect  tooling  arises  from  a  variety 
of  causes.  If  an  impression  is  clear,  but 
the  gold  not  solid,  it  is  probably  because 
the  tool  was  not  hot  enough,  or  was  not  put 
down  firmly.  If  only  one  side  of  an  impres- 
sion fails  to  stick,  it  is  usually  because  the 
tool  was  unevenly  impressed.  If  an  im- 
pression is  blurred,  and  the  gold  has  a 
frosted  look,  it  is  because  the  leather  has 
been  burned,  either  because  the  tool  was 
too  hot,  or  kept  down  too  long,  or  the 
preparation  was  too  fresh. 

To  mend  double  or  burnt  impressions 
the  leather  should  be  wetted  and  left  to 
soak  a  short  time,  and  the  gold  can  be 
picked  out  with  a  wooden  point.  When 
nearly  dry  the  impressions  should  be  put 
in  again  with  a  cool  tool,  reglaired  and 
retooled. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  mend  neatly  if  the 
leather  is  badly  burnt.  Sometimes  it  may 
be  advisable  to  paste  a  piece  of  new  leather 
over  a  burnt  impression  before  retooling. 

208 


If  a  tool  is  put  down  in  the  wrong  Finishing 
place  by  mistake,  it  is  difficult  to  get  the 
impression  out  entirely.  The  best  thing 
to  do  is  to  damp  the  leather  thoroughly, 
leave  it  to  soak  for  a  little  while,  and 
pick  up  the  impression  with  the  point  of  a 
pin.  It  is  best  not  to  use  an  iron  point  for 
this,  as  iron  is  apt  to  blacken  the  leather. 

Leather  is  difficult  to  tool  if  it  has  not 
•a  firm  surface,  or  if  it  is  too  thin  to  give 
a  little  when  the  tool  is  struck. 

When  the  tooling  is  finished,  and  the 
loose  gold  removed  with  the  rubber,  the 
leather  should  bewashed  with  benzine, to  re- 
move any  grease  and  any  fragments  of  gold 
that  may  be  adhering  by  the  grease  only. 

The  inside  margins  of  the  boards  are 
next  polished  and  varnished,  and  the  end 
papers  pasted  down.  Or  if  there  is  a 
leather  joint,  the  panel  left  on  the  board 
may  be  filled  in  (see  Chapter  XVII). 

When  the  end  papers  are  dry,  the  sides 
and  back  may  be  polished  and  varnished. 

It  is  important  that  the  varnish  should 
be  of  good  quality,  and  not  too  thick,  or 
it  will  in  time  turn  brown  and  cause  the 
gold  to  look  dirty.  Some  of  the  light 
French  spirit  varnishes  prepared  for  book- 
binders answer  well.  Varnish  must  be 
14  209 


Finishing  used  sparingly,  and  is  best  applied  with  a 
pad  of  cotton-wool.  A  little  varnish  is 
poured  on  to  the  pad,  which  is  rubbed  on 
a  piece  of  paper  until  it  is  seen  that  the 
varnish  comes  out  thinly  and  evenly.  It 
is  then  rubbed  on  the  book  with  a  spiral 
motion.  The  quicker  the  surface  is  gone 
over,  provided  every  part  is  covered,  the 
better.  Varnish  will  not  work  well  if  it 
is  very  cold,  and  in  cold  weather  both  the 
book  and  varnish  bottle  should  be  slightly 
warmed  before  use.  Should  an  excess  of 
varnish  be  put  on  in  error,  or  should  it  be 
necessary  to  retool  part  of  the  book  after 
it  has  been  varnished,  the  varnish  can  be 
removed  with  spirits  of  wine.  Varnish 
acts  as  a  preservative  to  the  leather,  but 
has  the  disadvantage,  if  used  in  excess,  of 
making  it  rather  brittle  on  the  surface. 
It  must,  therefore,  be  used  very  sparingly 
at  the  joints.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  a 
perfectly  elastic  varnish,  that  will  not  tar- 
nish the  gold,  will  soon  be  discovered. 

As  soon  as  the  varnish  is  dry  the  boards 
may  be  pressed,  one  at  a  time,  to  give  the 
leather  a  smooth  surface  (see  fig.  83),  leav- 
ing each  board  in  the  press  for  some  hours. 

After  each  board  has  been  pressed  sepa- 
rately the  book  should  be  shut,  and  pressed 

2IO 


Finishing 


FIG.   89. 


Finishing  again  with  pressing  plates  on  each  side  of 
it,  and  with  tins  covered  with  paper  placed 
inside  each  board.  Light  pressure  should 
be  given  to  books  with  tight  backs,  or  the 
leather  may  become  detached. 

If,  on  removing  from  the  press,  the 
boards  will  not  keep  shut,  the  book  should 
be  pressed  again  with  a  folded  sheet  of 
blotting-paper  in  each  end.  The  blotting- 
paper  should  have  the  folded  edge  turned 
up,  and  be  placed  so  that  this  turned-up 
edge  will  be  in  the  joint  behind  the  back 
edge  of  the  board  when  the  book  is  shut. 

A  small  nipping-press  suitable  for  giv- 
ing comparatively  light  pressure,  is  shown 
at  fig.  89. 


TOOLING    ON    VELLUM 

Tooling  on  Most  covering  vellum  has  a  sticky 
Vellum  surface,  that  marks  if  it  is  handled.  This 
should  be  washed  off  with  clean  water 
before  tooling.  The  pattern  is  blinded  in 
through  the  paper  as  for  leather,  excepting 
that  the  paper  must  not  be  pasted  directly 
to  the  vellum,  but  may  be  held  with  a 
band  going  right  round  the  board  or  book. 
It  is  best  to  glaire  twice,  and  to  lay  on 
a  small  portion  of  gold  at  a  time  with 

212 


benzine.     As  vellum  burns  very  readily,  Tooling  on 
the  tools  must  not  be  too  hot,  and  some     Vellum 
skill  is  needed  to  prevent  them  from  slip- 
ping on  the  hard  surface. 

Vellum   must  not  be  polished  or  var- 
nished. 


INLAYING    ON    LEATHER 

Inlaying  or  onlay  ing  is  adding  a  dif-  Inlaying  on 
ferent  leather  from  that  of  the  cover,  as  Leatner 
decoration.  Thus  on  a  red  book,  a  panel 
or  a  border,  or  other  portion,  may  be 
covered  with  thin  green  leather,  or  only 
flowers  or  leaves  may  be  inlaid,  while  a 
jewel-like  effect  may  be  obtained  by  dots, 
leaves,  and  flowers,  tooled  over  inlays  of 
various  colours.  Leather  for  inlaying 
should  be  pared  very  thin.  To  do  this 
the  leather  is  cut  into  strips,  wetted,  and 
pared  on  a  stone  with  a  knife  shaped 
somewhat  as  at  fig.  60,  B.  When  the 
thin  leather  is  dry  the  inlays  of  the  leaves 
and  flowers,  &c.,  may  be  stamped  out  with 
steel  punches  cut  to  the  shape  of  the 
tools ;  or  if  only  a  few  inlays  are  needed, 
the  tools  may  be  impressed  on  the  thin 
leather,  and  the  inlays  cut  out  with  a 
sharp  knife.  The  edges  of  the  larger 

213 


Inlaying  on  inlays  should  be  pared  round  carefully. 
Leather  FOr  inlaying  a  panel  or  other  large  sur- 
face, the  leather  is  pared  very  thin  and 
evenly  with  a  French  knife,  and  a  piece 
of  paper  pasted  on  to  the  grained  side 
and  left  to  dry.  When  dry,  the  shape 
of  the  panel,  or  other  space  to  be  inlaid, 
is  marked  on  it  through  the  paper  pattern, 
and  leather  and  paper  cut  through  to  the 
shape  required.  The  edges  must  then  be 
carefully  pared,  and  the  piece  attached 
with  paste,  and  nipped  in  the  press  to 
make  it  stick.  When  the  paste  is  dry, 
the  paper  may  be  damped  and  washed 
off.  The  object  of  the  paper  is  to  pre- 
vent the  thin  leather  from  stretching 
when  it  is  pasted. 

For  white  inlays  it  is  better  to  use 
Japanese  paper  than  leather,  as  white 
leather,  when  pared  very  thin,  will  show 
the  colours  of  the  under  leather  through, 
and  look  dirty.  If  paper  is  used,  it  should 
be  sized  with  vellum  size  before  tooling. 

When  many  dots  or  leaves  are  to  be 
inlaid,  the  pieces  of  leather,  cut  out  with 
the  punch,  may  be  laid  face  downwards 
on  a  paring  stone,  and  a  piece  of  paper, 
thickly  covered  with  paste,  laid  on  it. 
This,  on  being  taken  up,  will  carry  with 

214 


it  the  "  inlays,"  and  they  can  be  picked  Inlaying  on 
up  one  at  a  time  on  the  point  of  a  fine     Leather 
folder,  and  stuck  on  the  book. 

"Inlays"  of  tools  are  attached  after 
the  pattern  has  been  "  blinded  "  in,  and 
must  be  again  worked  over  with  the 
tool,  in  blind,  when  the  paste  is  nearly 
dry. 

On  vellum  an  effect,  similar  to  that  of 
inlays  on  leather,  can  be  obtained  by  the 
use  of  stains. 


CHAPTER   XV 

Lettering — Blind  Tooling — Heraldic  Ornament 
LETTERING    ON    THE    BACK 

LETTERING    may    be    done    either   with  Lettering  on 
separate  letters,  each  on  its  own  handle,     the  Back 
or  with    type    set  in   a   type-holder    and 
worked  across  the  back  as  a  pallet.     Al- 
though by  the  use  of  type  great  regularity 
is  ensured,  and  some  time  saved,  the  use 
of  handle    letters    gives    so    much    more 
freedom    of  arrangement,   that   their  use 
is  advocated   for   extra  binding.     Where 
a  great   many   copies   of  the  same  work 

215 


Lettering  on  have  to  be  lettered,  the  use  of  type  has 
the  Back    obvious  advantages. 

A  great  deal  depends  on  the  design  of 
the  letters  used.  Nearly  all  bookbinders' 
letters  are  made  too  narrow,  and  with  too 
great  difference  between  the  thick  and 
thin  strokes.  At  fig.  90  is  shown  an 
alphabet,  for  which  I  am  indebted  to  the 


ABCDEFGHIJKL 


MNOPQRSTUV 


WXYZcSr  12345 


67890 


FIG.   90. 

kindness  of  Mr.  Emery  Walker.  The 
long  tail  of  the  Q  is  meant  jLo  go  under 
the  U.  It  might  be  well  to  have  a  second 
R  cut,  with  a  shorter  tail,  to  avoid 
the  great  space  left  when  an  A  happens 
to  follow  it.  I  have  found  that  four  sizes 
of  letters  are  sufficient  for  all  books. 

To  make  out  a  lettering  paper  for  the 
back  of  a  book,  cut  a  strip  of  good  thin 

216 


paper  as  wide  as  the  height  of  the  panel  Lettering  on 
to  be  lettered.     Fold  it  near  the  centre,     the  Back 
and  mark  the  fold  with  a  pencil.     This 
should  give  a  line  exactly  at  right  angles 
to  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  strip.     Then 
make  another  fold  the  distance  from  the 
first  of  the  width  of  the  back ;  then  bring 
the  two  folds  together,  and  make  a  third 
fold    in    the    exact    centre.      The    paper 


B 
B 
E 
E 
E 

FIG.   91. 


FIG.   92. 


should  then  be  as  shown  at  fig.  91.  Sup- 
posing the  lettering  to  be  THE  WORKS 
OF  ROBERT  LOUIS  STEVENSON, 
select  the  size  of  letter  you  desire  to  use, 
and  take  an  E  and  mark  on  a  piece  of 
spare  paper  a  line  of  E's,  and  laying  your 
folded  paper,  against  it,  see  how  many 
letters  will  go  in  comfortably.  Suppos- 
ing you  find  that  four  lines  of  five  letters 
of  the  selected  size  can  be  put  in,  you 
must  see  if  your  title  can  be  conveniently 
cut  up  into  four  lines  of  five  letters,  or 
less.  It  might  be  done  as  shown  at  fig. 
93.  But  if  you  prefer  not  to  split  the 

217 


Lettering  on  name    STEVENSON,    a    smaller    letter 
the  Back    must  be  employed,  and  then  the  letter- 
ing may  be  as  at  fig.  94. 

To  find  out  the  position  of  the  lines 
of  lettering  on  a  panel,  the  letter  E  is 
again  taken  and  impressed  five  times  at 
the  side  of  the  panel,  as  shown  at  fig.  92, 
leaving  a  little  greater  distance  between 
the  lowest  letter  and  the  bottom  of  the 
panel,  than  between  the  letters.  The 


WORKS 
OF  R.L 
STEV/ 
ENSON 


THE  WORKS 

OF 
ROBERT 

LOUIS 
STEVENSON 


FIG.    93. 


FIG.   94. 


paper  is  then  folded  on  the  centre  fold, 
and,  with  dividers  set  to  the  average 
distance  between  the  head  of  one  letter 
and  the  head  of  the  next,  five  points  are 
made  through  the  folded  paper.  The 
paper  is  opened,  turned  over,  and  the 
points  joined  with  a  fine  folder  worked 
against  the  straight  -  edge.  It  should 
leave  on  the  front  five  raised  lines,  up 
to  which  the  head  of  the  letters  must 
be  put. 
218 


The  letters  in  the  top  line  are  counted,  Lettering  on 
and  the  centre  letter  marked.  Spaces  be-  the  Back 
tween  words  are  counted  as  a  letter ;  thus 
in  "THE  WORKS,"  "  W"  will  be  the 
centre  letter,  and  should  be  put  on  the 
paper  first,  and  the  others  added  on  each 
side  of  it.  Some  thought  is  needed  in 
judging  where  to  put  the  centre,  as  the 
difference  in  the  width  of  such  letters  as 
"  M  "  and  "  W  "  and  "  I  "  and  "  J  "  have 
to  be  taken  into  account. 

As  a  general  rule,  lettering  looks  best 
if  it  comfortably  fills  the  panel,  but  of 
course  it  cannot  always  be  made  to  do 
this.  The  greatest  difficulty  will  be  found 
in  making  titles  of  books  that  consist  of  a 
single  word,  look  well.  Thus  if  you  have 
"CORIOLANUS"  to  place  on  a  back 
which  is  not  more  than  £  -inch  wide,  if  it 
is  put  across  as  one  word,  as  at  fig.  95  (i), 
it  will  be  illegible  from  the  smallness  of 
the  type,  and  will  tell  merely  as  a  gold 
line  at  a  little  distance.  If  a  reasonably 
large  type  is  used,  the  word  must  be 
broken  up  somewhat,  as  at  (2),  which  is 
perhaps  better,  but  still  not  at  all  satis- 
factory. The  word  may  be  put  straight 
along  the  back,  as  at  fig.  (3),  but  this 
hardly  looks  well  on  a  book  with  raised 

219 


Lettering  on  bands,    and    should    be    avoided   unless 
the  Back    necessary. 

The  use  of  type  of  different  sizes  in 
lettering  a  book  should  be  avoided  when 
possible,  and  on  no  account  whatever 
should  letters  of  different  design  be  intro- 
duced. Occasionally,  when  the  reason  for 
it  is  obvious,  it  may  be  allowable  to  make 


CORIOLANUS 

CORIOLANUS 

CORI- 
OLA" 
NUS 

2 

FIG.   95. 

a  word  shorter  by  putting  in  a  small 
letter,  supposing  that  only  thus  could 
reasonably  large  type  be  used.  It  is 
especially  allowable  in  cases  where,  in  a 
set  of  volumes,  there  is  one  much  thinner 
than  the  others.  It  is  generally  better  to 
make  some  compromise  with  the  lettering 
of  the  thin  volume,  than  to  spoil  the 
220 


lettering  of  the  whole  set  by  using  too  Lettering  on 
small  a  letter  throughout  (see  fig.  115).         the  Back 

On  very  thin  books  it  is  sometimes 
hardly  possible  to  get  any  lettering  at  all 
on  the  back.  In  such  cases  the  lettering 
is  best  put  on  the  side. 

In  the  case  of  some  special  books  that 
are  to  have  elaborately  decorated  bindings, 
and  are  on  that  account  sufficiently  dis- 
tinct from  their  neighbours,  a  certain 
amount  of  freedom  is  permissible  with 
the  lettering,  and  a  little  mystery  is  not 
perhaps  out  of  place.  But  in  mos't  cases 
books  have  to  be  recognised  by  their  titles, 
and  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that 
the  lettering  should  be  as  clear  as  possible, 
and  should  fully  identify  the  volume. 

For  lettering  half-bindings  and  other 
books  on  which  much  time  cannot  be 
spared,  it  would  take  too  long  to  make 
out  a  paper,  as  described  for  extra  bind- 
ings, nor  is  there  on  such  work  much 
occasion  for  it.  For  such  books  the  let- 
tering should  be  written  out  carefully, 
the  whole  panel  -prepared  and  glaired  in, 
and  the  gold  laid  on.  Then  with  a  piece 
of  fine  silk  or  thread  lines  may  be  marked 
across  the  gold  as  a  guide  to  the  finisher, 
and  the  letters  worked  from  the  centre 

'     221 


Lettering  on  outward,  as  described  for  making  out  the 
the  Back  paper  pattern.  Of  course  this  method 
does  not  allow  of  such  nice  calculation 
and  adjustment  as  when  a  paper  pattern 
is  made  out ;  but  if  a  general  principle  of 
clear  lettering  is  recognised  and  accepted, 
very  good  results  may  be  obtained. 

BLIND    TOOLING 

Blind  At  the  end  of  the  book  characteristic 

Tooling     examples  of  blind-tooled  books  are  given 


FIG.    96. 

(pages  321-25).  It  will  be  seen  that  most 
of  the  tools  form  complete  designs  in  them- 
selves. Although  the  use  of  detached  die- 
sunk  tools  was  general,  there  were  also 
simple  tools  used,  which,  when  combined, 

222 


made  up  more  or  less  organic  designs, 
and  allowed  more  freedom  to  the  finisher 
(see  figs.  96  and  97). 

Some  use  may  also  be  made  of  inter- 
laced strap-work  designs,  either  worked 
with  gouges,  or  a  small  fillet.  A  book 


Blind 
Tooling 


FIG. 


bound  in  oaken  boards,  with  a  leather 
back  with  knotted  decoration,  is  shown  at 
page  330.  I  have  found  that  such  binding 
and  decoration  is  more  satisfactory  in 
scheme  for  old  books,  than  most  forms  of 
modern  binding. 

223 


Blind  If  a  design  is  simple,  the  cover  is  marked 

Tooling  Up  with  dividers,  and  the  tools  impressed 
direct  upon  the  leather ;  or,  if  it  is  elabo- 
rate, a  paper  pattern  is  made  out,  and 
the  tools  blinded  through  the  paper,  as 
described  for  gold  tooling.  The  leather  is 
then  damped  with  water,  and  the  impres- 
sions retooled. 

The  panel  lines  on  most  of  the  bindings 
before  1 500  show  evidence  of  having  been 
put  in  with  a  tool  which  has  been  pushed 

..  along  the  leather,  and  not  with  a 
wheel.  I  have  found  that  a  tool 

LJ  guided  by  a  straight-edge,  and 
"  jiggered  "  backwards  and  for- 
9  '  wards,  makes  by  far  the  best  lines 
for  blind-tool  work.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  line  is  formed  by  the 
raised  portion  of  leather,  and  so  the  tool 
should  be  cut  somewhat  as  at  fig.  98. 
This  should  leave  three  ridges  on  the 
leather.  Blind  tooling  may  be  gone  over 
and  over  until  it  is  deep  enough,  and  may 
be  combined  with  various  other  methods 
of  working.  For  instance,  in  tooling  such 
a  spray  as  is  shown  at  fig.  99,  the  leaf 
would  be  formed  by  five  impressions  of 
the  second  tool,  shown  at  A,  the  extremity 
of  the  impressions  could  be  joined  with 

224 


gouges,  the  stalk  and  veining  could  either 
be  run  in  with  a  fillet  or  worked  with 
gouges.  The  grapes  would  best  be  worked 
with  a  tool  cut  for  the  purpose.  One 
edge  of  all  gouge  or  fillet  impressions  can 
be  smoothed  down  with 
some  such  tool  as  shown 
in  section  at  B.  This 
has  to  be  worked  round 
the  gouge  lines  with  a 
steady  hand,  and  may 
be  fairly  hot  if  it  is 
kept  moving.  At  C  is 
shown  a  section  of  a 
gouge  impression  before 
and  after  the  use  of  this 
tool.  The  ground  can 
be  dotted  in,  or  other- 
wise gone  over  with 
some  small  tool  to 
throw  up  the  pattern. 

Blind  tooling  can 
sometimes  be  used  in 
combination  with  gold 
tooling. 

In  the  fifteenth  century  the  Venetian 
binders  used  little  roundels  of  some  gesso- 
like  substance,  that  were  brightly  coloured 
cr  gilt,  in  combination  with  blind  tooling 
15  225 


Blind 
Tooling 


FIG 


Blind  (see  p.  325).  This  is  a  method  that 
Tooling  might  be  revived. 

What  is  known  as  "  leather  work  "  is 
a  further  development  of  blind  tooling. 
This  method  of  decoration  has  been  revived 
lately,  but  not  generally  with  success. 
"  Leather  work  "  may  be  divided  into  two 
branches  ;  in  one  the  surface  of  the  leather 
is  cut  to  outline  the  pattern,  and  in  the 
other  the  leather  is  embossed  from  the 
back,  while  wet,  and  the  pattern  outlined 
by  an  indented  line.  Sometimes  the  two 
methods  are  combined.  As  embossing 
from  the  back  necessitates  the  work  being 
done  before  the  leather  is  on  the  book,  it 
is  not  very  suitable  for  decorating  books. 
Leather  first  decorated  and  then  stuck  on 
the  book,  never  looks  as  if  it  was  an  integ- 
ral part  of  the  binding.  The  cut  leather 
work,  which  may  be  done  after  the  book 
is  bound,  and  leaves  the  surface  compara- 
tively flat,  is  a  better  method  to  employ 
for  books,  provided  the  cuts  are  not  too 
deep,  and  are  restricted  to  the  boards,  so 
as  not  to  weaken  the  leather  at  the  back 
and  joints.  Much  of  the  leather  used  for 
"  leather  work  "  is  of  very  poor  quality, 
and  will  not  last ;  for  modelling  it  must 
be  thick  on  the  side  of  the  book,  and  for 

226 


the  book  to  open  it  must  be  pared  thin  at  Blind 
the  joint,  thus  making  it  necessary  to  use  a  Tooling 
thick  skin  very  much  pared  down,  and  con- 
sequently weakened  (see  p.  155).  Another 
very  common  fault  in  modelled  "  leather 
work  "  is,  that  the  two  sides  and  the  back 
are  often  worked  separately  and  stuck 
together  on  the  book,  necessitating  a  join, 
and  consequently  a  weak  place  in  the 
hinge,  where  strength  is  most  wanted. 
Again,  in  most  modern  "  leather  work," 
those  who  do  the  decoration  do  not,  as  a 
rule,  do  the  binding,  and  often  do  not 
understand  enough  of  the  craft  to  do 
suitable  work. 

All  those  engaged  in  leather  work  are 
advised  to  learn  to  bind  their  own  books, 
and  to  only  use  such  methods  of  decora- 
tion as  can  be  carried  out  on  the  bound 
book. 


HERALDRY    ON    BOOK    COVERS 
It    IS    an    old    and  good    CUStom    tO    put  Heraldry  on 

the  arms  of  the  owner  of  a  library  on  the  Book  Covers 
covers  of  the  books  he  has  bound.     The 
traditional,  and  certainly  one  of  the  best 
ways  to  do  this,  is  to  have  an  arms  block 
designed   and  cut.     To   design   an   arms 

227 


Heraldry  on  block,  knowledge  of  heraldry  is  needed, 
Book  Covers  and  also  some  clear  idea  of  the  effect  to 
be  aimed  at.  A  very  common  mistake  in 
designing  blocks  is  to  try  and  get  the 
effect  of  hand  tooling.  Blocks  should  be 
and  look  something  entirely  different.  In 
hand  tooling  much  of  the  effect  is  got  from 
the  impressions  of  small  tools  reflecting 
the  light  at  slightly  different  angles,  giv- 
ing the  work  life  and  interest.  Blocked 
gold  being  all  in  one  plane,  has  no  such 
lights  in  it,  and  depends  entirely  on  its 
design  for  its  effect. 

Provided  the  heraldry  identifies  the 
owner,  it  should  be  as  simply  drawn  as 
it  can  be ;  the  custom  of  indicating  the 
tinctures  by  lines  and  dots  on  the  charges, 
generally  makes  a  design  confused,  obscur- 
ing the  coat  it  is  intended  to  make  clear. 
In  designing  heraldic  blocks  it  is  well  to 
get  a  good  deal  of  solid  flat  surface  of 
gold  to  make  the  blocked  design  stand 
out  from  any  gold-tooled  work  on  the 
cover. 

Another  way  of  putting  armorial  bear- 
ings on  covers,  is  to  paint  them  in  oil 
paint.  In  the  early  sixteenth  century  the 
Venetians  copied  the  Eastern  custom  of 
sinking  panels  in  their  book  covers,  and 

228 


painted    coats    of   arms    on    these    sunk  Heraldry  on 
portions  very  successfully.     The  ground-  Book  Covers 
work    of    the    shield    itself   was    usually 
Braised  a  little,  either  by  something  under 
the  leather,  or    by  some  gesso-like  sub- 
stance on  its  surface. 

Arms  blocks  should  be  placed  a  little 
above  the  centre  of  the  cover.  Generally, 
if  the  centre  of  the  block  is  in  a  line  with 
the  centre  band  of  a  book  with  five  bands, 
it  will  look  right. 

Blocks  are  struck  with  the  aid  of  an 
arming  or  blocking  press.  The  block  is 
attached  to  the  movable  plate  of  the  press 
called  the  "  platen."  To  do  this  some 
stout  brown  paper  is  first  glued  to  the 
platen,  and  the  block  glued  to  this,  and 
the  platen  fixed  in  its  place  at  the  bottom 
of  the  heating-box.  In  blocking  arms  on 
a  number  of  books  of  different  sizes,  some 
nice  adjustment  of  the  movable  bed  is 
needed  to  get  the  blocks  to  fall  in  exactly 
the  right  place. 

For  blocking,  one  coat  of  glaire  will  be 
enough  for  most  leathers.  The  gold  is 
laid  on  ,as  for  hand  tooling.  The  block 
should  be  brought  down  and  up  again 
fairly  sharply.  The  heat  needed  is  about 
the  same  as  for  hand  tooling. 

229 


CHAPTER   XVI 

Designing  for  Gold-Tooled  Decoration 
DESIGNING    TOOLS 


Designing    ]7OR  gOld  tooling,  such  tools  as  gouges, 
dots,  pieces  of  straight  line,  and  fillets  are 


Vr,   ?  j 

Decoration  to 


ready-made  at  most  dealers. 
Other  tools  are  best  designed  and  cut  to 
order.  At  first  only  a  few  simple  forms 
will  be  needed,  such  as  one  or  two  flowers 
of  different  sizes,  and  one  or  two  sets  of 
leaves  (see  fig.  100). 


FIG.    100  (reduced) 

In  designing  tools,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  they  may  appear  on  the  book 
many  times  repeated,  and  so  must  be 
simple  in  outline  and  much  convention- 
alised. A  more  or  less  naturalistic  draw- 
ing of  a  flower,  showing  the  natural 
irregularities,  may  look  charming,  but  if  a 

230 


tool  is  cut  from  it,  any  marked  irregularity  Designing 
becomes  extremely  annoying  when  repeated  f°r  Gold- 
several  times  on  a  cover.  So  with  leaves, 
unless  they  are  perfectly  symmetrical,  there 
should  be  three  of  each  shape  cut,  two 
curving  in  different  directions,  and  the 
third  quite  straight  (see  fig.  101).  To  have 
only  one  leaf,  and  to  have  that  curved,  pro- 
duces very  restless  patterns.  The  essence 
of  gold-tool  design,  is  that  patterns  are  made 
up  of  repeats  of  impressions  of  tools,  and 

*  «  ft 

1        2        3 

FIG.    101. 

that  being  so,  the  tools  must  be  so  de- 
signed that  they  will  repeat  pleasantly, 
and  in  practice  it  will  be  found  that  any 
but  simple  forms  will  become  aggressive 
in  repetition. 

Designs  for  tools  should  be  made  out 
with  Indian  ink  on  white  paper,  and  they 
may  be  larger  than  the  size  of  the  re- 
quired tool.  The  tool-cutter  will  reduce 
any  drawing  to  any  desired  size,  and  will, 
from  one  drawing,  cut  any  number  of 
tools  of  different  sizes.  Thus,  if  a  set  of 

231 


Designing 
for  Gold- 
Tooled 
Decoration 


five  leaves  of  the  same  shape  is  wanted,  it 
will  only  be  necessary  to  draw  one,  and  to 
indicate  the  sizes  the  others  are  to  be  in 
some  such  way  as  shown  at  fig.  102. 

It  is  not  suggested  that  special  tools 
should  be  cut  for  each  pattern,  but  the 
need  of  new  tools  will  naturally  arise 
from  time  to  time,  and  so  the  stock  be 
gradually  increased.  It  is  better  to  begin 
with  a  very  few,  and  add  a  tool  or  two  as 


FIG.   102. 

occasion   arises,  than   to  try    to  design   a 
complete  set  when  starting. 

Tools  may  be  solid  or  in  outline.  If 
in  outline  they  may  be  used  as  "  inlay " 
tools,  and  in  ordering  them  the  tool-cutter 
should  be  asked  to  provide  steel  punches 
for  cutting  the  inlays. 


Combining       COMBINING    TOOLS    TO    FORM    PATTERNS 

form  It  is  well  f°r  tne  student  to  begin  with 

Patterns     patterns   arranged   on   some   very   simple 
232 


plan,  making  slight  changes  in  each  sue-  Combining 
ceeding    pattern.       In     this    way    an     in-    Tools  to 
dividual   style  may  be  established.     The       form 
usual  plan  of  studying  the  perfected  styles 
of  the  old  binders,  and   trying  to  begin 
where  they  left  off,  in  practice  only  leads 
to  the  production  of  exact  imitations,  or 
poor  lifeless  parodies,  of  the  old  designs. 
Whereas  a  pattern  developed  by  the  stu- 
dent by  slow  degrees,  through  a  series  of 
designs,   each  slightly   different  from  the 
one    before    it,   will,   if  eccentricities    are 
avoided,  probably  have  life  and  individual 
interest. 

Perhaps  the  easiest  way  to  decorate  a 
binding  is  to  cover  it  with  some  small  re- 
peating pattern.  A  simple  form  of  diaper 
as  a  beginning  is  shown  at  fig.  104.  To 
make  such  a  pattern  cut  -a  piece  of  good, 
thin  paper  to  the  size  of  the  board  of  a 
book,  and  with  a  pencil  rule  a  line  about 
an  eighth  of  an  inch  inside  the  margin  all 
round.  Then  with  the  point  of  a  fine 
folder  that  will  indent,  but  not  cut  the 
paper,  mark  up  as  shown  in  fig.  103. 
The  position  of  the  lines  A  A  and  B  B 
are  found  by  simply  folding  the  paper, 
first  side  to  side,  and  then  head  to  tail. 
The  other  lines  can  be  put  in  without  any 

' 


form 
Patterns 


Combining  measurement  by  simply  joining  all  points 
Tools  to  where  lines  cross.  By  continual  re-cross- 
ing, the  spaces  into  which  the  paper  is 
divided  can  be  reduced  to  any  desired  size. 
If  the  construction  lines  are  accurately 
put  in,  the  spaces  will  all  be  of  the  same 
size  and  shape.  It  is  then  evident  that  a 


* 


FIG.    103. 

repeating  design  to  fill  any  one  of  the  spaces 
can  be  made  to  cover  the  whole  surface. 

In  fig.  104,  it  is  the  diagonal  lines  only 
that  are  utilised  for  the  pattern.  To  avoid 
confusion,  the  cross  lines  that  helped  to 
determine  the  position  of  the  diagonals 
are  not  shown. 

234 


Combining 
Tools  to 

•     *..'«         '     -.        /      \  _  /     \  _  /  form 

Patterns 

N        /  ' 

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m/K>  v=a««E£»  ^3«fc5»  <&l 

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li^         ^  ^         ^ktl^ 

v  /      \  /     \  / 
>'         «        X 

•  \  t  \          *  v 

\       »       »       »'     %»      *      ** 

\    '         \    /        \  / 

y 

*\ 

'    \      •     *       »  \       /    \       /  \ 

/      \  /      v    /      \    /     \    /      \     /      \ 

'  v   r  ,    /  »   •  »    /  \    /  « 

V  V a£ ^ -^ j 


FIG.    104   (reduced) 


Combining       The  advantage  of  using  the  point  of  a 
Tools  to     folder    to     mark    up    the    constructional 

,-  i 

t0]  lines  of  a  pattern  instead  of  a  pencil,  is 
that  the  lines  so  made  are  much  finer,  do 
not  rub  out,  and  do  not  cause  confusion 
by  interfering  with  the  pattern.  Any 
lines  that  will  appear  on  the  book,  such 
as  the  marginal  lines,  may  be  put  in  with 
a  pencil  to  distinguish  them. 

Having  marked  up  the  paper,  select  a 
flower  tool  and  impress  it  at  the  points 
where  the  diagonal  lines  cross,  holding  it 
in  the  smoke  of  a  candle  between  every 
two  or  three  impressions.  When  the 
flower  has  been  impressed  all  over,  select 
a  small  piece  of  straight  line,  and  put  a 
stalk  in  below  each  flower;  then  a  leaf  put 
in  on  each  side  of  the  straight  line  will 
complete  the  pattern. 

A  development  of  the  same  principle  is 
shown  at  fig.  105,  in  which  some  gouges 
are  introduced.  Any  number  of  other 
combinations  will  occur  to  any  one  using 
the  tools.  Frequently  questions  will  arise 
as  to  whether  a  tool  is  to  be  put  this  way 
or  that  way,  and  whether  a  line  is  to  curve 
up  or  down.  Whenever  there  is  such  an 
alternative  open,  there  is  the  germ  of 
another  pattern.  All-over  diaper  patterns 

236 


iM/  j  W*  !  w 


Combining 
Tools  to 

form 
Patterns 


FIG.    105   (reduced) 


Combining  may  be  varied  in  any  number  of  ways. 
Tools  to  One  way  is  to  vary  the  design  in  alternate 
form  spaces.  If  this  is  done  one  of  the  designs 
should  be  such  that  it  will  divide  down 
the  centre  both  ways  and  so  finish  off  the 
pattern  comfortably  at  the  edges.  The 
pattern  may  be  based  on  the  upright  and 
the  cross-lines  of  the  marking  up,  or  the 
marking  up  may  be  on  a  different  principle 
altogether.  The  designer,  after  a  little 
practice,  will  be  bewildered  by  the  infinite 
number  of  combinations  that  occur  to 
him. 

The  diaper  is  selected  for  a  beginning, 
because  it  is  the  easiest  form  of  pattern 
to  make,  as  there  is  no  question  of  getting 
round  corners,  and  very  little  of  studying 
proportion.  It  is  selected  also  because  it 
teaches  the  student  the  decorative  value  of 
simple  forms  repeated  on  some  orderly 
system.  When  he  has  grasped  this,  he 
has  grasped  the  underlying  principle  of 
nearly  all  successful  tooled  ornament. 
Diapers  are  good  practice,  because  in  a 
close,  all-over  pattern  the  tools  must  be 
put  down  in  definite  places,  or  an  appalling 
muddle  will  result.  In  tooling;  a  repeat 
of  the  same  few  tools,  is  the  best  possible 
practice,  giving  as  it  does  the  same  work 

238 


Combining 
Tools  to 

form 
Patterns 


FIG.    106  (reduced) 


form 
Patterns 


FIG.  107. 


Combining  over  and  over  again  under  precisely  the 
Tools  to  same  conditions,  and  concentrating,  on  one 
book  cover,  the  practice  that  might  be 
spread  over  several  backs  and  sides 
more  sparingly  decorated,  when  variety 
of  conditions  would  confuse  the 
student. 

When  the  principles  of  the 
diaper  have  been  mastered,  and 
the  student  has  become  familiar 
with  the  limitations  of  his 
tools,  other  schemes  of  de- 
coration may  be  attempted, 
such  as  borders,  centres,  or 
panels. 

A  form  of  border  connected  with  cross- 
lines  is  shown  at  fig.  106.  This  is  made 
up  of  a  repeat  of  the  spray  built  up  of 
three  tools  and  four  gouges  shown  at 
fig.  107,  with  slight  modification  at  the 
corners.  Other  schemes  for  borders  are 
those  in  which  flowers  grow  inwards  from 
the  edge  of  the  boards,  or  outwards  from 
a  panel  at  the  centre,  or  on  both  sides  of 
a  line  about  half  an  inch  from  the  edge. 
A  pattern  may  also  be  made  to  grow  all 
round  the  centre  panel.  Borders  will  be 
found  more  difficult  to  manage  than 
simple  diapers,  and  at  first,  are  best 
240 


built  up  on  the  same  principle — the  repeat  Combining 
of  some  simple  element.  Tools  10 

The  decoration  may  be  concentrated  on  p  m 
parts  of  the  cover,  such  as  the  centre  or 
corners.  A  design  for  a  centre  is  shown 
at  fig.  1 08,  and  below  is  shown  the  way  to 
construct  it.  A  piece  of  paper  is  folded, 
as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  and  an  eighth 
of  the  pattern  drawn  with  a  soft  pencil 
and  folded  over  on  the  line  A,  and  trans- 
ferred by  being  rubbed  at  the  back  with 
a  folder.  This  is  lined  in  with  a  pencil, 
and  folded  over  on  the  line  B  and  rubbed 
off.  This  is  lined  in  and  folded  over  on 
A  and  C,  rubbed  off  as  before,  and  the 
whole  lined  in.  The  overs  and  unders  of 
the  lines  are  then  marked,  and  gouges 
selected  to  fit.  Of  course  it  will  take 
several  trials  before  the  lines  will  interlace 
pleasantly,  and  the  tools  fit  in.  Another 
centre,  in  which  a  spray  is  repeated  three 
times,  is  shown  at  fig.  109,  and  any  num- 
ber of  others  will  occur  to  the  student 
after  a  little  practice.  A  change  of  tools, 
or  the  slight  alteration  of  a  line,  will  give 
an  entirely  new  aspect  to  a  pattern.  At 
Page  334  is  shown  an  all-over  pattern 
growing  from  the  bottom  centre  of  the 
board.  In  this  design  the  leather  was 
16  241 


Combining 
Tools  to 

form 
Patterns 


•A 


FIG.    1 08   (reduced) 


dark   green,   with    a    lighter  green  panel  Combining 
in   the   centre.     The  berries  were  inlaid    Tools  to 
in  bright  red.     Although  at  first  glance  it     pform 
seems  an  intricate  design,  it  is  made  up 
like   the   others  of  repetitions  of  simple 
forms. 

When   the   student    has    become    pro- 
ficient   in    the    arrangement    of  tools    in 


FIG.    109  (reduced) 

combination  with  lines,  a  design  consist- 
ing entirely,  or  almost  entirely,  of  lines 
may  be  tried.  This  is  more  difficult, 
because  the  limitations  are  not  so  obvious  ; 
but  here  again  the  principle  of  repetition, 
and  even  distribution,  should  be  followed. 
At  fig.  no  is  shown  a  design  almost  en- 
tirely composed  of  lines,  built  up  on  the 
same  principle  as  the  centre  at  fig.  108. 
The  ends  of  the  bands  form  a  very 

243 


Combining  pleasant  starting-place  for  patterns.      At 

Tools  to 

form 
Patterns 


FIG.    no   (reduced) 

pp.  330, 332—6  are  shown  ways  of  utilising 
244 


this   method.     To  look  right,  a   pattern  Combining 
must  be  consistent  throughout.     The  tools    Tools  to 

and   their   arrangement  must  have  about     _  orm 
.1  r  /->.    11      Patterns 

the  same  amount   or   convention.     Cjold 

tooling,  dealing,  as  it  does,  with  flat  forms 
in  silhouette  only,  necessitates  very  con- 
siderable formality  in  the  design  of  the  tools 
and  of  their  arrangement  on  the  cover. 
Modern  finishers  have  become  so  skilful, 
that  they  are  able  to  produce  in  gold 
tooling  almost  any  design  that  can  be 
drawn  in  lines  with  a  pencil,  and  some 
truly  marvellous  results  are  obtained  by 
the  use  of  inlays,  and  specially  cut  gouges. 
As  a  rule,  such  patterns  simply  serve  to 
show  the  skill  of  the  finisher,  and  to  make 
one  wonder  who  could  have  been  foolish 
enough  to  select  so  limited  and  laborious 
a  method  as  gold  tooling  for  carrying 
them  out. 

Generally  speaking,  successful  gold- 
tooled  patterns  show  evidence  of  having 
been  designed  with  the  tools  ;  of  being,  in 
fact,  mere  arrangements  of  the  tools,  and 
not  of  having  been  first  designed  with  a 
pencil,  and  then  worked  with  tools  cut  to  fit 
the  drawing.  This  does  not  of  course  apply 
to  patterns  composed  entirely  of  lines,  or 
to  patterns  composed  of  lines  of  dots. 


form 
Patterns 


Combining  If  artists  wish  to  design  for  gold  tool- 
Tools  to  ing  without  first  mastering  the  details, 
probably  the  safest  way  will  be  for  them 
to  design  in  lines  of  gold  dots.  Some 
successful  patterns  carried  out  in  this 
way  were  shown  at  the  Arts  and  Crafts 
Exhibition  some  years  ago.  . 

Designs  for  gold-tooled  binding  should 
always  be  constructed  on  some  geometri- 
cal plan,  and  whatever  pattern  there  is, 
symmetrically  distributed  over  the  cover. 

If  lettering  can  be  introduced,  it  will 
be  found  to  be  most  useful  when  arrang- 
ing a  pattern.  It  gives  dignity  and  pur- 
pose to  a  design,  and  is  also  highly 
decorative.  Lettering  may  be  arranged 
in  panels,  as  at  page  332,  or  in  a  border 
round  the  edge  of  the  board,  and  in  many 
other  ways.  It  may  either  consist  of  the 
title  of  the  book,  or  some  line  or  verse 
from  it  or  connected  with  it,  or  may 
refer  to  its  history,  or  to  the  owner. 
Anything  that  gives  a  personal  interest 
to  a  book,  such  as  the  arms  of  the  owner, 
the  initials  or  name  of  the  giver  or  receiver 
of  a  present,  with  perhaps  the  date  of  the 
gift,  is  of  value. 

The  use  of  the  small  fillet  makes  it 
possible  to  employ  long,  slightly-curved 

246 


lines.     Gold-tooled   lines  have   in  them-  Combining 
selves   such   great   beauty,  that  designers    Tools  to 
are  often  tempted  to  make  them  meander     pform 
about   the   cover   in   a  weak  and  aimless 
way.     As  the  limitations  enforced  by  the 
use  of  gouges  tend  to  keep   the   curves 
strong  and  small,  and  as  the  use  of  the 
small    fillet    tends    to    the   production   of 
long,  weak  curves,  students  are   advised 


l 


FIG.    in. 

at  first  to  restrict  the  curved  lines  in  their 
patterns  to  such  as  can  be  readily  worked 
with  gouges. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  a  gouge 
or  fillet  line  is  very  thin,  and  will  look 
weak  if  it  goes  far  without  support.  For 
this  reason  interlaced  lines  are  advocated. 

Gouge  lines  are  easier  to  work,  and 
look  better,  if  a  small  space  is  left  where 
the  gouges  end.  This  is  especially  the 

247 


form 
Patterns 


Combining  case  where  lines  bearing  leaves  or  flowers 
Tools  to     branch  from  the  main  stem  (see  fig.  in). 
Gouges  and  fillets  need  not  always  be 
of  the  same  thickness  of  line,  and  two  or 
three  sets  of  different  gauges  may  be  kept. 
A  finisher  can  always  alter  the  thickness 
of  a  gouge  with  emery  paper. 

One  method  of  arranging  gold-tooled 


FIG.  112. 

lines  is  to  treat  them  in  design  as  if  they 
were  wires  in  tension,  and  knot  and  twist 
them  together.  Provided  the  idea  is  con- 
sistently adhered  to  throughout,  such  a 
pattern  is  often  very  successful. 

A  simple  arrangement  of  straight  lines 
will  be  sufficient  ornamentation  for  most 
books.  Three  schemes  for  such  orna- 
mentation are  shown.  In  fig.  112  the 

248 


"  tie    downs "    may    be   in   "  blind "   and  Combining 
the     lines     in     gold.     The    arrangement    Tools 


to 

form 
Patterns 


FIG.    114. 

shown   at  fig.    113   leaves   a  panel  at  the 
top  which  may  be  utilised  for  lettering. 

249 


Combining 
Tools  to 

form 
Patterns 


WORKS 
OF  RALPH 

WALDO 
EMERSON 


MISCELLA' 
NIES 


1896 


WORKS 
OF  RALPH 

WALDO 

EMERSON 


ESSAYS 


'.•• 


FIG.    115. 


WORKS 

OF  RALPH 

WALDO 

EMERSON 


POEMS 


WORKS 

OF  RALPH 

WALDO 

EMERSONl 


ENGLISH 
TRAITS 
REPRES' 

ENTATIVE 
MEN 


99. 


WORKS 

OF  RALPH 

WALDO 

EMERSON 


CONDUCT 
OF  LIFE 
SOCIETY 
AND 

SOLITUDE 


WORKS 

OF 

RW  EM 
ERSON 


TETTER5 
AND 

SOCIAU 
AIMS 


FIG.    115. 


Combining 
Tools  to 

form 
Patterns 


Combining 
Tools  to 


_  DESIGNING    FOR    BACKS 

Patterns 

The  decoration  of  the  back  of  a  book 
is  difficult  owing  to  the  very  small  space 
usually  available  in  the  panels.  The  first 
consideration  must  be  the  lettering,  and 
when  that  has  been  arranged,  as  described 
in  Chapter  XV,  a  second  paper  is  got  out 
for  the  pattern.  The  back  panel  should 
generally  be  treated  in  the  same  style  and, 
if  possible,  with  the  same  tools  as  the 
sides,  if  they  are  decorated.  It  will  often 
be  found  far  easier  to  design  a  full-gilt 
side  than  a  satisfactory  back. 

A  design  may  be  made  to  fit  one  panel 
of  the  book  and  repeated  on  all  those  not 
required  for  lettering  (see  pages  332-34), 
or  it  may  be  made  to  grow  up  from  panel 
to  panel  (see  fig.  115).  In  the  case  of  sets 
of  books  in  which  the  volumes  vary  very 
much  in  thickness,  some  pattern  must  be 
made  that  can  be  contracted  and  expanded 
without  altering  the  general  look  of  the 
back  (see  fig.  1  15). 


252 


DESIGNING    FOR    INSIDE    OF    BOARDS 

The  inside  margins  of  the  board  permit 
of  a  little  delicate  decoration.  At  fig.  116 
are  shown  two  ways  of  treating  this  part 
of  the  binding.  The  inside  of  the  board 
is  sometimes  covered  all  over  with  leather, 
and  tooled  as  elaborately,  or  more  elabo- 
rately, than  the  outside.  If  there  are 


Combining 
Tools  to 

form 
Patterns 


FIG.    1 1 6. 


vellum  ends,  they  may  be  enriched  with 
a  little  tooling. 

The  edges  of  the  boards  may  have  a 
gold  line  run  on  them,  and  the  headcap 
may  be  decorated  with  a  few  dots. 


253 


CHAPTER   XVII 

Pasting  down  End  Papers — Opening  Books 
PASTING    DOWN    END    PAPERS 

Pasting     WHEN    the    finishing    is    done,    the    end 
down  End  papers  should  be  pasted  down  on  to  the 

Papers  board ;  or  if  there  is  a  leather  joint,  the 
panel  left  should  be  filled  in  to  match  the 
end  paper. 

To  paste  down  end  papers,  the  book 
is  placed  on  the  block  with  the  board 
open  (see  fig.  117,  A),  the  waste  sheets 
are  torn  off,  the  joints  cleared  of  any 
glue  or  paste,  and  the  boards  flattened,  as 
described  at  page  171  for  pasting  down 
leather  joints.  One  of  the  paste-down 
papers  is  then  stretched  over  the  board 
and  rubbed  down  in  the  joint,  and  the 
amount  to  be  cut  off  to  make  it  fit  into 
the  space  left  by  the  turn-in  of  the  leather 
is  marked  on  it  with  dividers,  measuring 
from  the  edge  of  the  board.  A  cutting 
tin  is  then  placed  on  the  book,  the  paste- 
down  paper  turned  over  it,  and  the  edges 
trimmed  off  to  the  divider  points  with  a 
254 


knife    and    straight-edge,    leaving    small      Pasting 
pieces    to    cover    the    ends    of   the  joint  down  End 
(fig.  n7,A,c). 

The  cutting  and  pasting  down  of  these 
small  pieces  in  the  joint  are  rather  difficult; 


they  should  come  exactly  to  the  edges  of 
the  board. 

When  both  paste-down  papers  are 
trimmed  to  size,  one  of  them  is  well 
pasted  with  thin  paste  in  which  there 

255 


Pasting     are  no  lumps,  with  a  piece  of  waste  paper 

down  End  under  it  to  protect  the  book.     The  joints 

Papers      should  also  be  pasted,  and  the  paste  rubbed 

in  with  the  ringer  and  any  surplus  removed. 

The  pasted  paper  is  then  brought  over 
on  to  the  board,  the  edges  adjusted  exactly 
to  their  places,  and  rubbed  down.  The 
joint  must  next  be  rubbed  down  through 
paper.  It  is  difficult  to  get  the  paper  to 
stick  evenly  in  the  joint,  and  great  nicety 
is  needed  here.  All  rubbing  down  must 
be  done  through  paper,  or  the  "  paste- 
down  "  will  be  soiled  or  made  shiny. 

Some  papers  stretch  very  much  when 
pasted,  and  will  need  to  be  cut  a  little 
smaller  than  needed,  and  put  down 
promptly  after  pasting.  Thin  vellum 
may  be  put  down  with  paste  in  which 
there  is  a  very  little  glue,  but  thicker 
vellum  is  better  put  down  with  thin  glue. 
In  pasting  vellum,  very  great  care  is 
needed  to  prevent  the  brush-marks  from 
showing  through.  If  the  vellum  is  thin, 
the  board  must  be  lined  with  white  or 
toned  paper  with  a  smooth  surface. 
This  paper  must  be  quite  clean,  as  any 
marks  will  show  through  the  vellum,  and 
make  it  look  dirty. 

When  one  side  is  pasted  down  the  book 

256 


can  be  turned  over  without  shutting  the      Pasting 
board,  and  the  other  board  opened  and  down  Encl 
pasted  down  in  the  same  way  (see  fig.  117,      Papers 
B).      In  turning  over  a  book,  a  piece  of 
white  paper  should  be  put  under  the  newly- 
pasted  side,  as,  being  damp,  it  will  soil  very 
readily.    When  both  ends  have  been  pasted 
down  the  joints  should  be  examined  and 
rubbed  down  again,  and  the  book  stood  up 
on  end  with  the  boards  open  until  the  end 
papers  are  dry.     The  boards  may  be  held 
open   with   a    piece  of  cardboard  cut  as 
shown  at  fig.  71. 

If  there  are  cloth  joints  they  are  put 
down  with  glue,  and  the  board  paper  is 
placed  nearly  to  the  edge  of  the  joint, 
leaving  very  little  cloth  visible. 

In  the  process  of  finishing,  the  boards 
of  a  book  will  nearly  always  be  warped  a 
little  outward,  but  the  pasted  end  papers 
should  draw  the  boards  a  little  as  they  dry, 
causing  them  to  curve  slightly  towards  the 
book.  With  vellum  ends  there  is  a  danger 
that  the  boards  will  be  warped  too  much. 


OPENING    NEWLY    BOUND    BOOKS 

Before  sending  out  a  newly  bound  book 
the  binder  should  go  through  it,  opening 
17  257 


Opening  it  here  and  there  to  ease  the  back.  The 
Newly  volume  is  laid  on  a  table,  and  the  leaves 
Bound  opened  a  short  distance  from  the  front, 
and  then  at  an  equal  distance  from  the 
«  back,  and  then  in  one  or  two  places  nearer 
the  centre  of  the  book,  the  leaves  being 
pressed  down  with  the  hand  at  each  open- 
ing. If  the  book  is  a  valuable  one,  every 
leaf  should  then  be  turned  over  separately 
and  each  opening  pressed  down,  beginning 
from  the  centre  and  working  first  one  way 
and  then  the  other.  In  this  way  the  back 
will  be  bent  evenly  at  all  points.  When 
a  book  has  been  opened,  it  should  be 
lightly  pressed  for  a  short  time  without 
anything  in  the  joints. 

If  a  book  is  sent  out  unopened,  the  first 
person  into  whose  hand  it  falls  will  prob- 
ably open  it  somewhere  in  the  centre, 
bending  the  covers  back  and  "  breaking  " 
the  back ;  and  if  any  leaves  chance  to 
have  been  stuck  together  in  edge-gilding, 
they  are  likely  to  be  torn  if  carelessly 
opened.  A  book  with  a  "  broken  "  back 
will  always  have  a  tendency  to  open  in  the 
same  place,  and  will  not  keep  its  shape. 
It  would  be  worth  while  for  librarians  to 
have  newly  bound  books  carefully  opened. 
An  assistant  could  "  open  "  a  large  number 

258 


of  books  in  a  day,  and  the  benefit  to  the     Opening 
bindings  would  amply  compensate  for  the      Newly 

small  trouble  and  cost  involved.  Bound 

Books 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

Clasps  and  Ties — Metal  on  Bindings 
CLASPS    AND    TIES 

SOME  books  need  to  be  clasped  to  keep  Clasps  and 
the  leaves  flat.  All  books  written  or 
printed  on  vellum  should  have  clasps. 
Vellum  unless  kept  flat  is  apt  to  cockle, 
and  this  in  a  book  will  force  the  leaves 
apart  and  admit  dust.  If  a  book  is 
tightly  wedged  in  a  shelf  the  leaves  will 
be  kept  flat,  but  as  the  chance  removal  of 
any  other  book  from  the  row  will  remove 
the  pressure,  it  is  much  better  to  provide 
clasps  for  vellum  books. 

Very  thick  books,  and  those  with  a  great 
many  folded  plates,  are  better  for  having 
clasps  to  prevent  the  leaves  from  sagging. 
As  nearly  all  books  are  now  kept  in  book- 
shelves, and  as  any  projection  on  the  side 
of  a  book  is  likely  to  injure  the  neigh- 

259 


Clasps  and   bouring  volume,  a  form  of  clasp  should 
Ties       be  used  that  has  no  raised  parts  on  the 
boards. 

At  fig.  1 1 8  is  shown  a  simple  clasp 
suitable  for  small  books  with  mill-board 
sides,  with  details  of  the  metal  parts,  made 
N  of  thick  silver  wire 
below.  Double  boards 
must  be  "  made,"  and  the 
flattened  ends  of  the 
silver  catch  inserted  be- 
tween the  two  thicknesses, 
and  glued  in  place. 
About  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  of  the  end  should 
<^\  /^N  project.  In  covering,  the 


leather  must  be  pierced 
FIG.  1 1 8.  and  carefully  worked 

round  the  catch.  To 
make  the  plait,  three  strips  of  thin 
leather  are  slipped  through  the  ring,  and 
the  ends  of  each  strip  pasted  together. 
The  three  doubled  strips  are  then  plaited 
and  the  end  of  the  plait  put  through 
a  hole  in  the  lower  board  of  the 
book  about  half  an  inch  from  the  edge, 
and  glued  down  inside.  A  groove  may  be 
cut  in  the  mill-board  from  the  hole  to  the 
edge  before  covering,  to  make  a  depres- 
260 


sion   in   which   the    plait   will   lie,   and   a  Clasps  and 
depression   may    be    scooped   out    of  the       Ties 
inner  surface  of  the  board  to  receive  the 
ends. 

At  fig.  1 1 9  is  a  somewhat  similar  clasp 
with  three  plaits 
su  i  t  a  b  1  e  f  o  r 
large  books. 
The  metal  end 
and  the  method 
of  inserting  it 
into  wooden 
boards  are  shown 
below.  The 
turned-down  end 
should  go  right 
through  the 
board,  and  be 
riveted  on  the 

inside.  When  the  three  plaits  are  worked, 
a  little  band  of  silver  may  be  riveted  on 
just  below  the  ring. 

A  very  simple  fastening  that  is  some- 
times useful  is  shown  at  fig.  77.  A  very 
small  bead  is  threaded  on  to  a  piece  of 
catgut,  and  the  two  ends  of  the  gut 
brought  together  and  put  through  a 
larger  bead.  The  ends  of  the  gut  with 
the  beads  on  them  are  laced  into  the  top 

261 


FIG. 


Clasps  and   board   of  the   book,  with   the  bead  pro- 
Ties       jecting  over  the  edge,  and  a  loop  of  gut 
is   laced  into  the  bottom   board.      If  the 
loop  can  be  made  exactly  the  right  length, 
this  is  a  serviceable  method. 

Silk  or  leather  ties  may  be  used  to  keep 
books  shut,  but  they  are  apt  to  be  in 
the  way  when  the  book  is  read,  and  as 
hardly  anybody  troubles  to  tie  them,  they 
are  generally  of  very  little  use. 

METAL    ON    BINDINGS 

Metal  on  Metal  corners  and  bosses  are  a  great 
Bindings  protection  to  bindings,  but  if  the  books 
are  to  go  into  shelves,  the  metal  must 
be  quite  smooth  and  flat.  A  metal  shoe 
on  the  lower  edge  of  the  boards  is  an 
excellent  thing  for  preserving  the  binding 
of  heavy  books. 

Bosses  and  other  raised  metal  work 
should  be  restricted  to  books  that  will 
be  used  on  lecterns  or  reading  desks. 
The  frontispiece  is  from  a  drawing  of  an 
early  sixteenth-century  book,  bound  in 
white  pigskin,  and  ornamented  with  brass 
corners,  centres,  and  clasps;  and  at  page 
323  is  shown  a  fifteenth-century  binding 
with  plain  protecting  bosses.  On  this  book 
262 


there  were  originally  five  bosses  on  each    Metal  on 
board,  but  the  centre  ones  have  been  lost.     Bindings 

Bindings  may  be  entirely  covered  with 
metal,  but  the  connection  between  the 
binding  and  the  book  is  in  that  case 
seldom  quite  satisfactory.  The  most 
satisfactory  metal-covered  bindings  that 
I  have  seen  are  those  in  which  the  metal 
is  restricted  to  the  boards.  The  book 
is  bound  in  wooden  boards,  with  thick 
leather  at  the  back,  and  plaques  of  metal 
nailed  to  the  wood.  The  metal  may  be 
set  with  jewels  or  decorated  with  enamel, 
and  embossed  or  chased  in  various  ways. 

•  Jewels  are  sometimes  set  in  invisible 
settings  below  the  leather  of  bindings, 
giving  them  the  appearance  of  being  set 
in  the  leather.  This  gives  them  an  in- 
secure look,  and  it  is  better  to  frankly 
show  the  metal  settings  and  make  a  deco- 
rative feature  of  them. 

CHAPTER   XIX 

Leather 
LEATHER 

OF  all  the  materials  used   by  the  book-     Leather 
binders,    leather    is    the    most    important 

263 


Leather  and  the  most  difficult  to  select  wisely. 
It  is  extremely  difficult  to  judge  a  leather 
by  its  appearance. 

"  We  find  now,  that  instead  of  leather 
made  from  sheep,  calf,  goat,  and  pig- 
skins, each  having,  when  finished,  its  own 
characteristic  surface,  that  sheepskins  are 
got  up  to  look  like  calf,  morocco,  or 
pigskin ;  that  calf  is  grained  to  resemble 
morocco,  or  so  polished  and  flattened  as 
to  have  but  little  character  left ;  while 
goatskins  are  grained  in  any  number  of 
ways,  and  pigskin  is  often  grained  like 
levant  morocco.  So  clever  are  some  of 
these  imitations,  that  it  takes  a  skilled 
expert  to  identify  a  leather  when  it  is 
on  a  book." 

There  have  been  complaints  for  a  long 
time  of  the  want  of  durability  of  modern 
bookbinding  leather,  but  there  has  not 
been  until  lately  any  systematic  investi- 
gation into  the  causes  of  its  premature 
decay. 

By  permission,  I  shall  quote  largely  from 
the  report  of  the  committee  appointed  by 
the  Society  of  Arts  to  inquire  into  the 
subject.  There  are  on  this  special  com- 
mittee leather  manufacturers,  bookbinders, 
librarians,  and  owners  of  libraries.  The 

264 


report  issued  is  the  result  of  an  immense  Leather 
amount  of  work  done.  Many  libraries 
were  visited,  and  hundreds  of  experi- 
ments and  tests  were  carried  out  by  the 
sub-committees.  There  is  much  useful 
information  in  the  report  that  all  book- 
binders and  librarians  should  read.  The 
work  of  the  committee  is  not  yet  finished, 
but  its  findings  may  be  accepted  as  con- 
clusive as  far  as  they  go. 

The  committee  first  set  themselves  to 
ascertain  if  the  complaints  of  the  pre- 
mature decay  of  modern  bookbinding 
leather  are  justified  by  facts,  and  on  this 
point  report  that : — 

"  As  regards  the  common  belief  that 
modern  binding  leather  does  decay  pre- 
maturely, the  sub  -  committee  satisfied 
themselves  that  books  bound  during  the 
last  eighty  or  hundred  years  showed  far 
greater  evidence  of  deterioration  than 
those  of  an  earlier  date.  Many  recent 
bindings  showed  evidence  of  decay  after  so 
short  a  period  as  ten,  or  even  five  years. 
The  sub-committee  came  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  there  is  ample  justification  for 
the  general  complaint  that  modern  leather 
is  not  so  durable  as  that  formerly  used. 
To  fix  the  date  of  the  commencement 

265 


Leather  of  this  deterioration  was  a  difficult  matter; 
but  they  came  to  the  conclusion  that  while 
leather  of  all  periods  showed  some  signs 
of  decay,  the  deterioration  becomes  more 
general  on  books  bound  after  1830,  while 
some  leathers  seem  to  be  generally  good 
until  about  1860,  after  which  date  nearly 
all  leathers  seem  to  get  worse.  The 
deterioration  of  calf  bindings  at  the 
latter  end  of  the  i9th  century  may  be 
attributed  as  much  to  the  excessive  thin- 
ness as  to  the  poor  quality  of  the 
material." 

The  committee  endeavoured  to  ascertain 
the  relative  durability  of  the  leathers  used 
for  bookbinding,  and  after  visiting  many 
libraries,  and  comparing  bindings,  they 
report  as  follows  : — 

"  As  to  the  suitability  of  various 
leathers,  the  sub-committee  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  of  the  old  leathers  (i5th 
and  1 6th  century),  white  pigskin,  probably 
alum  f  tanned/  is  the  most  durable,  but 
its  excessive  hardness  and  want  of  flexibility 
renders  this  leather  unsuitable  for  most 
modern  work.  Old  brown  calf  has  lasted 
fairly  well,  but  loses  its  flexibility,  and 
becomes  stiff"  and  brittle  when  exposed  to 
light  and  air.  Some  of  the  white  tawed 

266 


skins  of  the  I5th  and  i6th  century,  other  Leather 
than  white  pigskin,  and  probably  deerskin, 
have  lasted  very  well.  Some  I5th  and 
1 6th  century  sheepskin  bindings  have 
remained  soft  and  flexible,  but  the  surface 
is  soft,  and  usually  much  damaged  by 
friction.  Vellum  seems  to  have  lasted 
fairly  well,  but  is  easily  influenced  by 
atmospheric  changes,  and  is  much  affected 
by  light.  Early  specimens  of  red  morocco 
from  the  i6th  to  the  end  of  the  i8th 
century  were  found  in  good  condition,  and 
of  all  the  leathers  noticed,  this  seems  to 
be  the  least  affected  by  the  various  condi- 
tions to  which  it  had  been  subjected.  In 
the  opinion  of  the  committee,  most  of  this 
leather  has  been  tanned  with  sumach  or 
some  closely  allied  tanning  material. 
Morocco  bindings  earlier  than  1860  were 
generally  found  to  be  in  fairly  good  con- 
dition, but  morocco  after  that  date  seems 
to  be  much  less  reliable,  and  in  many  cases 
has  become  utterly  rotten.  During  the 
latter  part  of  the  i8th  century  it  became 
customary  to  pare  down  calf  until  it  was 
as  thin  as  paper.  Since  about  1 830  hardly 
any  really  sound  calf  seems  to  have  been 
used,  as,  whether  thick  or  thin,  it  appears 
generally  to  have  perished.  Sheepskin 

267 


Leather  bindings  of  the  early  part  of  the  century 
are  many  of  them  still  in  good  condition. 
Since  about  1860  sheepskin  as  sheepskin 
is  hardly  to  be  found.  Sheepskins  are 
grained  in  imitation  of  other  leathers,  and 
these  imitation-grained  leathers  are  gene- 
rally found  to  be  in  a  worse  condition  than 
any  of  the  other  bindings,  except,  perhaps, 
some  of  the  very  thin  calfskin.  Undyed 
modern  pigskin  seems  to  last  well,  but 
some  coloured  pigskin  bindings  had  entirely 
perished.  Modern  leathers  dyed  with  the 
aid  of  sulphuric  acid  are  all  to  be  con- 
demned. In  nearly  every  case  Russia 
leather  was  found  to  have  become  rotten, 
at  least  in  bindings  of  the  last  fifty 
years." 

On  the  question  of  the  causes  of  the 
decay  noticed  and  the  best  methods  of 
preparing  leather  in  the  future,  I  may 
quote  the  following  : — 

"  The  work  of  a  sub-committee,  which 
was  composed  of  chemists  specially  con- 
versant with  the  treatment  of  leather,  was 
directed  specially  to  the  elucidation  of  the 
following  points  :  an  investigation  of  the 
nature  of  the  decay  of  leather  used  for 
bookbinding ;  an  examination  of  the 
causes  which  produced  this  decay  ;  a  re- 

268 


search  into  the  best  methods  of  preparing     Leather 
leather  for  bookbinding ;  and  a  considera- 
tion  of  the   points   required  to  be   dealt 
with  in  the  preservation  of  books. 

"  Taking  these  points  in  order,  the 
first  one  dealt  with  is  the  question  of 
the  nature  of  the  decay  of  leather.  To 
arrive  at  their  conclusions  on  this  subject, 
the  sub-committee  made  a  number  of 
tests  and  analyses  of  samples  of  decayed 
leather  bookbindings,  as  well  as  of  leathers 
used  for  binding.  The  committee  found 
that  the  most  prevalent  decay  was  what 
they  term  a  red  decay,  and  this  they 
think  may  be  differentiated  into  old  and 
new,  the  old  red  decay  being  noticeable 
up  to  about  1830,  and  the  new  decay 
since  that  date.  In  the  old  decay,  the 
leather  becomes  hard  and  brittle,  the  sur- 
face not  being  easily  abraded  by  friction. 
The  older  form  is  specially  noticeable  in 
calf-bound  books,  tanned  presumably  with 
oak  bark.  The  new  form  affects  nearly 
all  leathers,  and  in  extreme  cases  seems 
absolutely  to  destroy  the  fibres.  Another 
form  of  deterioration,  more  noticeable  in 
the  newer  books,  renders  the  grain  of  the 
leather  liable  to  peel  off  when  exposed  to 
the  slightest  friction.  This  is  the  most 

269 


Leather  common  form  of  decay  noted  in  the  more 
recent  leathers.  In  nearly  all  samples  of 
Russia  leather  a  very  violent  form  of  red 
decay  was  noticed.  In  many  cases  the 
leather  was  found  to  be  absolutely  rotten 
in  all  parts  exposed  to  light  and  air,  so 
that  on  the  very  slightest  rubbing  with 
a  blunt  instrument  the  leather  fell  into 
fine  dust.  .  .  . 

"  The  second  point  is  the  cause  of  the 
decay.  An  extensive  series  of  experiments 
was  carried  out  with  a  view  of  determining 
the  causes  of  the  decay  of  bindings.  The 
sub-committee  find  that  this  is  caused  by 
both  mechanical  and  by  chemical  influ- 
ences. Of  the  latter,  some  are  due  to 
mistakes  of  the  leather  manufacturer  and 
the  bookbinder,  others  to  the  want  of 
ventilation,  and  to  improper  heating  and 
lighting  of  libraries.  In  some  cases  in- 
ferior leathers  are  finished  (by  methods 
in  themselves  injurious)  so  as  to  imitate 
the  better  class  leathers,  and  of  course 
where  these  are  used  durability  cannot 
be  expected.  But  in  the  main  the  injury 
for  which  the  manufacturer  and  book- 
binder are  responsible  must  be  attributed 
rather  to  ignorance  of  the  effect  of  the 
means  employed  to  give  the  leather  the 
270 


outward  qualities  required  for  binding,  Leather 
than  to  the  intentional  production  of  an 
inferior  article.  .  .  .  Leathers  produced 
by  different  tanning  materials,  although 
they  may  be  equally  sound  and  durable 
mechanically,  vary  very  much  in  their 
resistance  to  other  influences,  such  as 
light,  heat,  and  gas  fumes. 

"  For  bookbinding  purposes,  the  sub- 
committee generally  condemn  the  use  of 
tanning  materials  belonging  to  the  cate- 
chol  group,  although  the  leathers  pro- 
duced by  the  use  of  these  materials  are 
for  many  purposes  excellent,  and  indeed 
superior.  The  class  of  tanning  materials 
which  produce  the  most  suitable  leather 
for  this  particular  purpose  belong  to  the 
pyrogallol  group,  of  which  a  well  known 
and  important  example  is  sumach.  East 
Indian  or  'Persian'  tanned  sheep  and 
goat  skins,  which  are  suitable  for  many 
purposes,  and  are  now  used  largely  for 
cheap  bookbinding  purposes,  are  con- 
sidered extremely  bad.  Books  bound  in 
these  materials  have  been  found  to  show 
signs  of  decay  in  less  than  twelve  months, 
and  the  sub-committee  are  inclined  to 
believe  that  no  book  bound  in  these 
leathers,  exposed  on  a  shelf  to  sunlight 

271 


Leather  or  gas  fumes,  can  ever  be  expected  to 
last  more  than  five  or  six  years.  Em- 
bossing leather  under  heavy  pressure  to 
imitate  a  grain  has  a  very  injurious  effect, 
while  the  shaving  of  thick  skins  greatly 
reduces  the  strength  of  the  leather 
by  cutting  away  the  tough  fibres  of  the 
inner  part  of  the  skin.  The  use  of 
mineral  acids  in  brightening  the  colour 
of  leather,  and  in  the  process  of  dyeing, 
has  a  serious  effect  in  lessening  its  resist- 
ance to  decay.  A  good  deal  yet  remains 
to  be  learned  about  the  relative  per- 
manency of  the  different  dyes." 

On  analysis  free  sulphuric  acid  was 
found  to  be  present  in  nearly  all  book- 
binding leather,  and  it  is  the  opinion  of 
the  committee  that  even  a  small  quantity 
of  this  acid  materially  lessens  the  dura- 
bility of  the  leather. 

"It  has  been  shown  by  careful  experi- 
ment, that  even  a  minute  quantity  of 
sulphuric  acid  used  in  the  dye  bath  to 
liberate  the  colour  is  at  once  absorbed 
by  the  leather,  and  that  no  amount  of 
subsequent  washing  will  remove  it.  In  a 
very  large  proportion  of  cases  the  decay 
of  modern  sumach-tanned  leather  has  been 
due  to  the  sulphuric  acid  used  in  the  dye 

272 


bath,  and  retained  in  the  skin.  We  have  Leather 
examined  very  many  samples  of  leather 
manufactured  and  sold  specially  for  book- 
binding purposes,  from  different  factories, 
bought  from  different  dealers,  or  kindly 
supplied  by  bookbinders  and  by  librarians, 
and  have  found  them  to  contain,  in  a 
large  number  of  cases,  free  sulphuric  acid, 
from  0.5  up  to  1.6  per  cent." 

The  publication  of  the  report  should 
tend  to  fix  a  standard  for  bookbinding 
leather.  Hitherto  there  has  been  no  re- 
cognised standard.  Bookbinders  have 
selected  leather  almost  entirely  by  its 
appearance.  It  has  now  been  shown  that 
appearance  is  no  test  of  durability,  and 
the  mechanical  test  of  tearing  the  leather 
is  insufficient.  Sound  leather  should  tear 
with  difficulty,  and  the  torn  edges 
should  be  fringed  with  long,  silky  fibres, 
and  any  leather  which  tears  very  easily, 
and  shows  short,  curled-up  fibres  at  the 
torn  edges,  should  be  discarded.  But 
though  good  bookbinding  leather  will 
tear  with  difficulty,  and  show  long  fibres 
where  torn,  that  is  in  itself  not  a  suffi- 
cient test ;  because  it  has  been  shown 
that  the  leather  that  is  mechanically  the 
strongest,  is  not  necessarily  the  most 

18  273 


Leather  durable  and  the  best  able  to  resist  the 
adverse  influences  to  which  books  are 
subject  in  libraries. 

The  report  shows  that  bookbinders 
and  librarians  are  not,  as  a  general  rule, 
qualified  to  select  leather  for  bookbind- 
ing. In  the  old  days,  when  the  manufac- 
ture of  leather  was  comparatively  simple, 
a  bookbinder  might  reasonably  be  expected 
to  know  enough  of  the  processes  employed 
to  be  able  to  select  his  leather.  But  now 
so  complicated  is  the  manufacture,  and  so 
many  are  the  factors  to  be  considered,  that 
an  expert  should  be  employed. 

"The  committee  have  satisfied  them- 
selves that  it  is  possible  to  test  any  leather 
in  such  a  way  as  to  guarantee  its  suita- 
bility for  bookbinding.  They  have  not 
come  to  any  decision  as  to  the  desirability  of 
establishing  any  formal  or  official  standard, 
though  they  consider  that  this  is  a  point 
which  well  deserves  future  consideration." 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  some  system 
of  examining  and  hall-marking  leather 
by  some  recognised  body,  may  be  insti- 
tuted. If  librarians  will  specify  that  the 
leather  to  be  employed  must  be  certi- 
fied to  be  manufactured  according  to  the 
recommendations  of  the  Society  of  Arts 

274 


Committee,  there  is  no  reason  why  leathers  Leather 
should  not  be  obtained  as  durable  as  any 
ever  produced.  This  would  necessitate 
the  examining  and  testing  of  batches  of 
leather  by  experts.  At  present  this  can 
be  done  more  or  less  privately  at  various 
places,  such  as  the  Yorkshire  College, 
Leeds,  or  the  Herolds*  Institute,  Ber- 
mondsey.  In  the  near  future  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that  some  recognised  public 
body,  such  as  one  of  the  great  City 
Companies  interested  in  leather,  may  be 
induced  to  establish  a  standard,  and  to  test 
such  leathers  as  are  submitted  to  them, 
hall-marking  those  that  come  up  to  the 
standard.  This  would  enable  bookbinders 
and  librarians,  in  ordering  leather,  to 
be  sure  that  it  had  not  been  injured 
in  its  manufacture.  The  testing,  if  done 
by  batches,  should  not  add  greatly  to  the 
cost  of  the  leather. 

On  the  question  of  the  qualities  of  an 
ideal  bookbinding  leather  the  committee 
report : — 

"  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  committee, 
that  the  ideal  bookbinding  leather  must 
have,  and  retain,  great  flexibility.  .  .  .  (It) 
must  have  a  firm  grain  surface,  not  easily 
damaged  by  friction,  and  should  not  be 

275 


Leather  artificially  grained.  .  .  .  The  committee  is 
of  opinion  that  a  pure  sumach  tannage 
will  answer  all  these  conditions,  and  that 
leather  can,  and  will,  be  now  produced 
that  will  prove  to  be  as  durable  as  any 
made  in  the  past." 

The  committee  has  so  far  only  dealt 
with  vegetable  -  tanned  leather.  I  have 
used,  with  some  success,  chrome-tanned 
calfskin.  Chrome  leather  is  difficult 
to  pare,  and  to  work,  as  it  does  not 
become  soft  when  wet,  like  vegetable- 
tanned  leather.  It  will  stand  any  reason- 
able degree  of  heat,  and  so  might  perhaps 
be  useful  for  top-shelf  bindings  and  for 
shelf  edging.  It  is  extremely  strong 
mechanically,  but  without  further  tests 
I  cannot  positively  recommend  it  except 
for  trial. 

While  the  strength  and  probable  dura- 
bility of  leather  can  only  be  judged  by  a 
trained  leather  chemist,  there  remains  for 
the  binders  selection,  the  kind  of  leather 
to  use,  and  its  colour. 

Most  of  the  leather  prepared  for  book- 
binding is  too  highly  finished.  The 
finishing  processes  add  a  good  deal  to  the 
cost  of  the  leather,  and  are  apt  to  be  in- 
jurious to  it,  and  as  much  of  the  high 

276 


finish   is    lost  in    covering,   it   would    be     Leather 
better  for  the  bookbinder  to  get  rougher 
leather  and  finish  it  himself  when  it  is  on 
the  book. 

The  leathers  in  common  use  for  book- 
binding are : — 

Goatskin,  known  as  morocco. 

Calf,  known  as  calf  and  russia. 

Sheepskin,  known  as  roan,  basil,  skiver, 
&c. 

Pigskin,  known  as  pigskin. 

Sealskin,  known  as  seal. 

Morocco  is  probably  the  best  leather  for 
extra  binding  if  properly  prepared,  but 
experiment  has  shown  that  the  expensive 
Levant  moroccos  are  nearly  always  ruined 
in  their  manufacture.  A  great  many 
samples  of  the  most  expensive  Levant 
morocco  were  tested,  with  the  result  that 
they  were  all  found  to  contain  free  sul- 
phuric acid. 

Calf. — Modern  vegetable  -  tanned  calf 
has  become  a  highly  unsatisfactory  ma- 
terial, and  until  some  radical  changes 
are  made  in  the  methods  of  manufactur- 
ing it,  it  should  not  be  used  for  book- 
binding. 

Sheepskin. — A  properly  tanned  sheep- 
skin makes  a  very  durable,  though  rather 

277 


Leather  soft  and  woolly,  leather.  Much  of  the 
bookbinding  leather  now  made  from  sheep- 
skin is  quite  worthless.  Bookbinders 
should  refuse  to  have  anything  to  do 
with  any  leather  that  has  been  artificially 
grained,  as  the  process  is  apt  to  be  highly 
injurious  to  the  skin. 

Pigskin. — Pigskin  is  a  thoroughly  good 
leather  naturally,  and  very  strong,  especi- 
ally the  alumed  skins ;  but  many  of  the 
dyed  pigskins  are  found  to  be  improperly 
tanned  and  dyed,  and  worthless  for  book- 
binding. 

Sealskin  is  highly  recommended  by  one 
eminent  librarian,  but  I  have  not  yet  had 
any  experience  of  its  use  for  bookbind- 
ing. 

The  leather  that  I  have  found  most 
useful  is  the  Niger  goatskin,  brought 
from  Africa  by  the  Royal  Niger  Com- 
pany ;  it  is  a  very  beautiful  colour  and 
texture,  and  has  stood  all  the  tests  tried, 
without  serious  deterioration.  The  diffi- 
culty with  this  leather  is  that,  being  a 
native  production,  it  is  somewhat  care- 
lessly prepared,  and  is  much  spoiled  by 
flaws  and  stains  on  the  surface,  and  many 
skins  are  quite  worthless.  It  is  to  be 
hoped  that  before  long  some  of  the  manu- 

278 


facturers  interested  will  produce  skins  as     Leather 
good   in   quality  and   colour  as  the  best 
Niger  morocco,  and  with  fewer  flaws. 

Much  leather  is  ruined  in  order  to 
obtain  an  absolutely  even  colour.  A 
slight  unevenness  of  colours  is  very  pleas- 
ing, and  should  rather  be  encouraged  than 
objected  to.  That  the  want  of  interest 
in  absolutely  flat  colours  has  been  felt,  is 
shown  by  the  frequency  with  which  the 
binders  get  rid  of  flat,  even  colours  by 
sprinkling  and  marbling. 

On  this  point  I  may  quote  from  the  com- 
mittee :  "  The  sprinkling  of  leather, 
either  for  the  production  of  '  sprinkled ' 
calf  or  *  tree '  calf,  with  ferrous  sulphate 
(green  vitriol)  must  be  most  strongly 
condemned,  as  the  iron  combines  with  and 
destroys  the  tan  in  the  leather,  and  free 
sulphuric  acid  is  liberated,  which  is  still 
more  destructive.  Iron  acetate  or  lactate 
is  somewhat  less  objectionable,  but  prob- 
ably the  same  effects  may  be  obtained 
with  aniline  colours  without  risk  to  the 
leather." 


279 


CHAPTER   XX 

Paper — Pastes —  Glue 


PAPER 


Paper  PAPER  may  be  made  by  hand  or  machinery, 
and  either  "  laid  "  or  "  wove."  "  Laid  " 
papers  are  distinguished  by  wire  marks, 
which  are  absent  in  "  wove  "  paper. 

A  sheet  of  hand-made  paper  has  all 
round  it  a  rough  uneven  edge  called  the 
"  deckle,"  that  is  a  necessary  result  of 
its  method  of  manufacture.  The  early 
printers  looked  upon  this  ragged  edge  as 
a  defect,  and  almost  invariably  trimmed 
most  of  it  off  before  putting  books  into 
permanent  bindings.  Book-lovers  quite 
rightly  like  to  find  traces  of  the  "  deckle  " 
edge,  as  evidence  that  a  volume  has  not 
been  unduly  reduced  by  the  binder.  But 
it  has  now  become  the  fashion  to  admire 
the  "  deckle "  for  its  own  sake,  and  to 
leave  books  on  hand-made  paper  ab- 
solutely untrimmed,  with  ragged  edges 
that  collect  the  dirt,  are  unsightly,  and 
troublesome  to  turn  over.  So  far  has 
this  craze  gone,  that  machine-made  paper 
280 


is  often  put  through  an  extra  process  to      Paper 
give  it  a  sham  deckle  edge. 

Roughly  speaking,  paper  varies  in  qual- 
ity according  to  the  proportion  of  fibrous 
material,  such  as  rag,  used  in  the  manu- 
facture. To  make  paper  satisfactorily  by 
hand,  a  large  proportion  of  such  fibrous 
material  is  necessary,  so  that  the  fact  that 
the  paper  is  hand-made  is  to  some  extent 
a  guarantee  of  its  quality.  There  are 
various  qualities  of  hand-made  paper, 
made  from  different  materials,  chiefly 
linen  and  cotton  rags.  The  best  paper  is 
made  from  pure  linen  rag,  and  poorer 
hand-made  paper  from  cotton  rag,  while 
other  qualities  contain  a  mixture  of  the 
two  or  other  substances. 

It  is  possible  to  make  a  thoroughly 
good  paper  by  machinery  if  good  ma- 
terials are  used.  Some  excellent  papers 
are  made  by  machinery ;  but  the  enor- 
mous demand  for  paper,  together  with 
the  fact  that  now  almost  any  fibrous 
material  can  be  made  into  paper,  has 
resulted  in  the  production,  in  recent 
years,  of,  perhaps,  the  worst  papers  that 
have  ever  been  seen. 

This  would  not  matter  if  the  use  of 
the  poor  papers  were  restricted  to  news- 

281 


Paper  papers  and  other  ephemeral  literature, 
but  when,  as  is  often  the  case,  paper  of 
very  poor  quality  is  used  for  books  of 
permanent  literary  interest,  the  matter  is 
serious  enough. 

Among  the  worst  papers  made  are  the 
heavily  loaded  "  Art "  papers  that  are  pre- 
pared for  the  printing  of  half-toned  pro- 
cess blocks.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
before  long  the  paper  makers  will  pro- 
duce a  paper  that,  while  suitable  for 
printing  half-toned  blocks,  will  be  more 
serviceable,  and  will  have  a  less  unplea- 
sant surface. 

Several  makers  produce  coloured  hand- 
made papers  suitable  for  end  papers. 
Machine-made  papers  can  be  had  in  end- 
less variety  from  any  number  of  makers. 

The  paper  known  as  "Japanese  Vellum" 
is  a  very  tough  material,  and  will  be 
found  useful  for  repairing  vellum  books  ; 
the  thinnest  variety  of  it  is  very  suitable 
for  mending  the  backs  of  broken  sections, 
or  for  strengthening  weak  places  in  paper. 

The  following  delightful  account  of 
paper  making  by  hand  is  quoted  from 
"Evelyn's  Diary,  1641-1706." 

"  I  went  to  see  my  Lord  of  St.  Alban's 
house  at  Byflete,  an  old  large  building. 

282 


Thence  to  the  paper  mills,  where  I  found  Paper 
them  making  a  coarse  white  paper.  They 
cull  the  raggs,  which  are  linnen,  for  white 
paper,  woollen  for  brown,  then  they  stamp 
them  in  troughs  to  a  papp  with  pestles  or 
hammers  like  the  powder-mills,  then  put 
it  into  a  vessell  of  water,  in  which  they 
dip  a  frame  closely  wyred  with  a  wyre  as 
small  as  a  haire,  and  as  close  as  a  weaver's 
reede ;  on  this  they  take  up  the  papp, 
the  superfluous  water  draining  thro' 
the  wyre ;  this  they  dextrously  turning, 
shake  out  like  a  pancake  on  a  smooth 
board  between  two  pieces  of  flannell,  then 
press  it  between  a  greate  presse,  the  flan- 
nell sucking  out  the  moisture ;  then  tak- 
ing it  out  they  ply  and  dry  it  on  strings, 
as  they  dry  linnen  in  the  laundry ;  then 
dip  it  in  alum-water,  lastly  polish  and 
make  it  up  in  quires.  They  put  some 
gum  in  the  water  in  which  they  macerate 
the  raggs.  The  mark  we  find  on  the 
sheets  is  formed  in  the  wyre." 

The  following  are  the  more  usual  sizes 
of  printing  papers — 

Inches. 

Foolscap  .     .     .     .      17     x  13^ 
Crown       ....     20     x  15 
Post 19^  x  15^ 

283 


Paper  Inches. 

Demy 22^  x  17^ 

Medium   ....  24     x  19 

Royal 25     x  20 

Double  Pott .     .     .  25     x  15 

„        Foolscap    .  27     x  17 

Super  Royal       .     .  27     x  21 

Double  Crown  .     .  30     x  20 

Imperial    .     .     .     .  30     x  22 

Double  Post .     .     .  31^  x  19* 

The  corresponding  sizes  of  hand-made 
papers  may  differ  slightly  from  the  above. 

Although  the  above  are  the  principal 
sizes  named,  almost  any  size  can  be  made 
to  order. 

The  following  is  an  extract  from  the 
report  of  the  Committee  of  the  Society 
of  Arts  on  the  deterioration  of  paper, 
published  in  1898:  "The  committee 
find  that  the  paper-making  fibres  may 
be  ranged  into  four  classes : — 

A.  Cotton,  flax,  and  hemp. 

B.  Wood,    celluloses    (a)    sulphite 

process,  and  (b]  soda  and  sul- 
phate process. 

C.  Esparto  and  straw  celluloses. 

D.  Mechanical  wood  pulp. 

In    regard,    therefore,    to     papers    for 
284 


books  and  documents  of  permanent  value,  Paper 
the  selection  must  be  taken  in  this  order, 
and  always  with  due  regard  to  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  conditions  of  normal  treat- 
ment above  dealt  with  as  common  to  all 
papers." 

"  The  committee  have  been  desirous  of 
bringing  their  investigations  to  a  practical 
conclusion  in  specific  terms,  viz.  by  the 
suggestion  of  standards  of  quality.  It  is 
evident  that  in  the  majority  of  cases,  there 
is  little  fault  to  find  with  the  practical 
adjustments  which  rule  the  trade.  They 
are,  therefore,  satisfied  to  limit  their 
specific  findings  to  the  following,  viz., 
Normal  standard  of  quality  for  book  papers 
required  for  publications  of  permanent  value. 
For  such  papers  they  would  specify  as 
follows : — 

"  Fibres.  Not  less  than  70  per  cent,  of 
fibres  of  Class  A. 

"  Sizing.  Not  more  than  2  per  cent, 
rosin,  and  finished  with  the  normal 
acidity  of  pure  alum. 

"Loading.  Not  more  than  10  per  cent, 
total  mineral  matter  (ash). 

"  With  regard  to  written  documents,  it 
must  be  evident  that  the  proper  materials 
are  those  of  Class  A,  and  that  the  paper 

285 


Paper  should  be  pure,  and  sized  with  gelatine, 
and  not  with  rosin.  All  imitations  of 
high-class  writing  papers,  which  are,  in 
fact,  merely  disguised  printing  papers, 
should  be  carefully  avoided." 


PASTES 

Pastes  To  make  paste  for  covering  books, 
&c.,  take  2  oz.  of  flour,  and  £  oz.  of 
powdered  alum,  and  well  mix  with  enough 
water  to  form  a  thin  paste,  taking  care  to 
break  up  any  lumps.  Add  a  pint  of  cold 
water,  and  heat  gently  in  an  enamelled 
saucepan.  As  it  becomes  warm,  it  should 
be  stirred  from  time  to  time,  and  when  it 
begins  to  boil  it  should  be  continually 
stirred  for  about  five  minutes.  It  should 
then  form  a  thick  paste  that  can  be 
thinned  with  warm  water.  Of  course 
any  quantity  can  be  made  if  the  propor- 
tions are  the  same. 

Paste  for  use  is  best  kept  in  a  wooden 
trough,  called  a  "  paste  tub."  The  paste 
tub  will  need  to  be  cleaned  out  from 
time  to  time,  and  all  fragments  of  dry 
paste  removed.  This  can  easily  be  done 
if  it  is  left,  overnight,  filled  with  water. 

286 


Before   using,   the   paste   should   be  well       Pastes 
beaten  up  with  a  flat  stick. 

For  pasting  paper,  it  should  have  about 
the  consistency  and  smoothness  of  cream  ; 
for  leather,  it  can  be  thicker.  For  very 
thick  leather  a  little  thin  glue  may  be 
added.  Paste  made  with  alum  will  keep 
about  a  fortnight,  but  can  be  kept  longer 
by  the  addition  of  corrosive  sublimate  in 
the  proportion  of  one  part  of  corrosive 
sublimate  to  a  thousand  parts  of  paste. 
Corrosive  sublimate,  being  a  deadly  poison, 
will  prevent  the  attack  of  bookworms  or 
other  insects,  but  for  the  same  reason 
must  only  be  used  by  responsible  people, 
and  paste  in  which  it  is  used  must  be  kept 
out  of  the  way  of  domestic  animals. 

Several  makes  of  excellent  prepared 
paste  can  be  bought  in  London.  These 
pastes  are  as  cheap  as  can  be  made,  and 
keep  good  a  long  time. 

Paste  that  has  become  sour  should  never 
be  used,  as  there  is  danger  that  the  pro- 
ducts of  its  acid  fermentation  may  injure 
the  leather. 

Paste  tubs  as  sold  often  have  an  iron 
bar  across  them  to  wipe  the  brush  on. 
This  should  be  removed,  and  replaced  by 
a  piece  of  twisted  cord.  Paste  brushes 

287 


Pastes      should   be    bound   with    string    or    zinc ; 
copper  or  iron  will  stain  the  paste. 


WHITE    PASTE    FOR    MENDING 


White  A  good  paste  for  mending  is  made  from 
Paste  for  a  teaspoonful  of  ordinary  flour,  two  tea- 
Mending  spoonsful  of  cornflour,  half  a  teaspoonful 
of  alum,  and  three  ounces  of  water.  These 
should  be  carefully  mixed,  breaking  up 
all  lumps,  and  then  should  be  heated  in  a 
clean  saucepan,  and  stirred  all  the  time 
with  a  wooden  or  bone  spoon.  The  paste 
should  boil  for  about  five  minutes,  but 
not  too  fast,  or  it  will  burn  and  turn 
brown.  Rice-flour  or  starch  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  cornflour,  and  for  very  white 
paper  the  wheaten  flour  may  be  omitted. 
Ordinary  paste  is  not  nearly  white  enough 
for  mending,  and  is  apt  to  leave  unsightly 
stains. 

Cornflour  paste  may  be  used  directly 
after  it  is  made,  and  will  keep  good  under 
ordinary  circumstances  for  about  a  week. 
Directly  it  gets  hard  or  goes  watery,  a 
new  batch  must  be  made. 


288 


GLUE 

It  is  important  for  bookbinders  that  Glue 
the  glue  used  should  be  of  good  quality, 
and  the  best  hide  glue  will  be  found  to 
answer  well.  To  prepare  it  for  use,  the 
glue  should  be  broken  up  into  small 
pieces  and  left  to  soak  overnight  in 
water.  In  the  morning  it  should  be 
soft  and  greatly  swollen,  but  not  melted, 
and  can  then  be  put  in  the  glue-pot  and 
gently  simmered  until  it  is  fluid.  It  is 
then  ready  for  use.  Glue  loses  in  quality 
by  being  frequently  heated,  so  that  it  is 
well  not  to  make  a  great  quantity  at  a 
time.  The  glue-pot  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  out  before  new  glue  is  put  into 
it,  and  the  old  glue  sticking  round  the 
sides  taken  out. 

Glue  should  be  used  hot  and  not  too 
thick.  If  it  is  stringy  and  difficult  to 
work,  it  can  be  broken  up  by  rapidly 
twisting  the  brush  in  the  glue-pot.  For 
paper  the  glue  should  be  very  thin  and 
well  worked  up  with  the  brush  before 
using. 

The  following  is  quoted  from  "  Cham- 
bers' Encyclopaedia  "  article  on  Glue  : — 
19  289 


Glue  "  While  England  does  not  excel  in  the 

manufacture,  it  is  a  recognised  fact  that 
Scottish  glue  .  .  .  ranks  in  the  front  of 
the  glues  of  all  countries.  A  light- 
coloured  glue  is  not  necessarily  good, 
nor  a  dark-coloured  glue  necessarily  bad. 
A  bright,  clear,  claret  colour  is  the  natural 
colour  of  hide  glue,  which  is  the  best  and 
most  economical. 

"  Light-coloured  glues  (as  distinguished 
from  gelatine)  are  made  either  from  bones 
or  sheepskins.  The  glue  yielded  by  these 
materials  cannot  compare  with  the  strength 
of  that  yielded  by  hides. 

"  A  great  quantity  is  now  made  in 
France  and  Germany  from  bones.  It  is 
got  as  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture 
of  animal  charcoal.  Although  beautiful 
to  look  at,  it  is  found  when  used  to  be 
far  inferior  to  Scottish  hide  glue." 


290 


PART  II 


CARE  OF  BOOKS  WHEN 
BOUND 

CHAPTER  XXI 

Injurious  Influences  to  which  Books  are  Subjected 

Gas  Fumes. — The  investigation  of  the 
Society  of  Arts  Committee  shows  that — 

"  Of  all  the  influences  to  which  books 
are  exposed  in  libraries,  gas  fumes — no 
doubt  because  of  the  sulphuric  and  sul- 
phurous acid  which  they  contain — are 
shown  to  be  the  most  injurious." 

The  injurious  effects  of  gas  fumes  on 
leather  have  been  recognised  for  a  long 
time,  and  gas  is  being,  very  generally, 
given  up  in  libraries  in  consequence.  If 
books  must  be  kept  where  gas  is  used, 
they  should  not  be  put  high  up  in  the 

291 


Injurious 
Influences 
to  which 
Books  are 
Subjected 


Subjected 


Injurious  room,  and  great  attention  should  be  paid 
Influences  to  ventilation.  It  is  far  better,  where 
to  which  pOSSibiej  to  avoid  the  use  of  gas  at  all 

Books  are    •      1-1 

in  libraries. 

Light. — The  committee  also  report  that 
"  light,  and  especially  direct  sunlight  and 
hot  air,  are  shown  to  possess  deleterious 
influences  which  had  scarcely  been  sus- 
pected previously,  and  the  importance  of 
moderate  temperature  and  thorough  venti- 
lation of  libraries  cannot  be  too  much 
insisted  on." 

The  action  of  light  on  leather  has  a 
disintegrating  effect,  very  plainly  seen 
when  books  have  stood  for  long  periods 
on  shelves  placed  at  right  angles  to 
windows.  At  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
and  at  the  British  Museum  Library  the 
same  thing  was  noticed.  The  leather 
on  that  side,  of  the  backs  of  books, 
next  to  the  light,  was  absolutely  rotten, 
crumbling  to  dust  at  the  slightest  friction, 
while  at  the  side  away  from  the  light  it 
was  comparatively  sound.  Vellum  bind- 
ings were  even  more  affected  than  those  of 
leather. 

The  committee  advise  that  library 
windows  exposed  to  the  direct  sunlight 
should  be  glazed  with  tinted  glass. 

292 


"  Some  attempts  have  been  made  to 
determine  the  effect  of  light  transmitted 
through  glasses  of  different  colours,  and 
they  point  to  the  fact  that  blue  and 
violet  glass  pass  light  of  nearly  as  deleteri- 
ous quality  as  white  glass  ;  while  leathers 
under  red,  green,  and  yellow  glasses  were 
almost  completely  protected.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  use  of  pale  yellow 
or  olive-green  glass  in  library  windows 
exposed  to  direct  sunlight  is  desirable. 
A  large  number  of  experiments  have  been 
made  on  the  tinted  c  cathedral  '  glasses  of 
Messrs.  Pilkington  Bros.,  Limited,  with 
the  result  that  Nos.  812  and  712  afforded 
almost  complete  protection  during  two 
months'  exposure  to  sunlight,  while  Nos. 
704  and  804  may  be  recommended  where 
only  very  pale  shades  are  permissible. 
The  glasses  employed  were  subjected  to 
careful  spectroscopic  examination,  and  to 
colour-measurement  by  the  tintometer, 
but  neither  were  found  to  give  precise 
indications  as  to  the  protective  power  of 
the  glasses,  which  is  no  doubt  due  to  the 
absorption  of  the  violet,  and  especially 
of  the  invisible  ultra-violet  rays.  An  easy 
method  of  comparing  glasses  is  to  expose 
under  them  to  sunlight  the  ordinary  sen- 

293 


Injurious 
Influences 


to  which 
Books  are 

Subjected 


Injurious     sitised  albumenised   photographic    paper. 
Influences   Those  glasses  under  which   this   is  least 
darkened    are    also    most    protective    to 
leather." 

Tobacco. — Smoking  was  found  to  be 
injurious,  and  it  is  certainly  a  mistake  to 
allow  it  in  libraries. 

"  The  effect  of  ammonia  vapour,  and 
tobacco  fumes,  of  which  ammonia  is  one 
of  the  active  ingredients,  was  also  ex- 
amined. The  effect  of  ammonia  fumes 
was  very  marked,  darkening  every  descrip- 
tion of  leather,  and  it  is  known  that  in 
extreme  cases  it  causes  a  rapid  form  of 
decay.  Tobacco  smoke  had  a  very  similar 
darkening  and  deleterious  effect  (least 
marked  in  the  case  of  sumach  tanned 
leathers),  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  deterioration  of  bindings  in  a  library 
where  smoking  was  permitted  and  the 
rooms  much  used,  must  have  been  partly- 
due  to  this  cause." 

Damp. — Books  kept  in  damp  places 
will  develop  mildew,  and  both  leather 
and  paper  will  be  ruined. 

Where  possible,  naturally  dry  rooms 
should  be  used  for  libraries,  and  if  not 
naturally  dry,  every  means  possible  should 
be  taken  to  render  them  so.  It  will  some- 

294 


times  be  found  that  the  only  way  to  keep    Injurious 
the  walls  of  an  old  house  dry  is  to  put  in    Influences 
a  proper  dampcourse.     There  are  various    *°  ™hlc* 
other  methods  employed,  such  as  lining    g  ^.       , 
the  walls  with  thin  lead,  or  painting  them 
inside  and  out  with  some  waterproofing 
preparation :    but   as   long   as   a  wall   re- 
mains in  itself  damp,  it  is  doubtful  if  any 
of  these  things  will  permanently  keep  the 
damp  from  penetrating. 

Bookshelves  should  never  be  put  against 
the  wall,  nor  the  books  on  the  floor. 
There  should  always  be  space  for  air  to 
circulate  on  all  sides  of  the  bookshelves. 
Damp  is  specially  injurious  if  books  are 
kept  behind  closely-fitting  doors.  The 
doors  of  bookcases  should  be  left  open 
from  time  to  time  on  warm  days. 

Should  mildew  make  its  appearance,  the 
books  should  be  taken  out,  dried  and 
aired,  and  the  bookshelves  thoroughly 
cleaned.  The  cause  of  the  damp  should 
be  sought  for,  and  measures  taken  to 
remedy  it.  Library  windows  should  not 
be  left  open  at  night,  nor  during  damp 
weather,  but  in  warm  fine  weather  the 
more  ventilation  there  is,  the  better. 

Heat. — While  damp  is  very  injurious 
to  books  on  account  of  the  development 

295 


Injurious 
Influences 
to  which 
Books  are 
Subjected 


of  mildew,  unduly  hot  dry  air  is  almost 
as  bad,  causing  leather  to  dry  up  and 
lose  its  flexibility.  On  this  point  the 
Chairman  of  the  Society  of  Arts  Com- 
mittee says  : — 

"  Rooms  in  which  books  are  kept  should 
not  be  subject  to  extremes,  whether  of 
heat  or  cold,  of  moisture  or  dry  ness.  It 
may  be  said  that  the  better  adapted  a 
room  is  for  human  occupation,  the  better 
for  the  books  it  contains.  Damp  is,  of 
course,  most  mischievous,  but  over-dry- 
ness  induced  by  heated  air,  especially  when 
the  pipes  are  in  close  proximity  to  the 
bookcases,  is  also  very  injurious." 

Dust. — Books  should  be  taken  from  the 
shelves  at  least  once  a  year,  dusted  and 
aired,  and  the  bindings  rubbed  with  a  pre- 
servative. 

To  dust  a  book,  it  should  be  removed 
from  the  shelf,  and  without  being  opened, 
turned  upside  down  and  flicked  with  a 
feather  duster.  If  a  book  with  the  dust 
on  the  top  is  held  loosely  in  the  hand,  and 
dusted  right  way  up,  dust  may  fall  be- 
tween the  leaves.  Dusting  should  be  done 
in  warm,  dry  weather ;  and  afterwards, 
the  books  may  be  stood  on  the  table 
slightly  open,  to  air,  with  their  leaves 

296 


loose.      Before    being    returned    to    the    Injurious 
shelves,   the    bindings   should   be   lightly    Influences 
rubbed  with   some   preservative   prepara-    '°  which 

Books  are 


tion  (see  chap.  XXII).  Any  bindings  that 
are  broken,  or  any  leaves  that  are  loose 
should  be  noted,  and  the  books  put  on 
one  side  to  be  sent  to  the  binder.  It 
would  be  best  when  the  library  is  large 
enough  to  warrant  it,  to  employ  a  work- 
ing bookbinder  to  do  this  work ;  such  a 
man  would  be  useful  in  many  ways.  He 
could  stick  on  labels,  repair  bindings,  and 
do  many  other  odd  jobs  to  keep  the  books 
in  good  repair. 

A  bookbinder  could  be  kept  fully  em- 
ployed, binding  and  repairing  the  books  of 
a  comparatively  small  library  under  the 
direction  of  the  librarian. 


Subjected 


BOOKWORMS 

The  insects  known  as  bookworms  are  Bookworms 
the  larvae  of  several  sorts  of  beetles,  most 
commonly  perhaps  of  Antobium  domesti- 
cum  and  Niptus  bololencus.  They  are  not 
in  any  way  peculiar  to  books  and  will  in- 
fest the  wood  of  bookshelves,  walls,  or 
floors.  A  good  deal  can  be  done  to  keep 
"  worms  "  away  by  using  such  substances 

297 


Bookworms  as  camphor  or  naphthaline  in  the  bookcase. 
Bookworms  do  not  attack  modern  books 
very  much  ;  probably  they  dislike  the  alum 
put  in  the  paste  and  the  millboards  made 
of  old  tarred  rope. 

In  old  books,  especially  such  as  come 
from  Italy,  it  is  often  found  that  the 
ravages  of  the  bookworms  are  almost 
entirely  confined  to  the  glue  on  the  backs 
of  the  books,  and  it  generally  seems  that 
the  glue  and  paste  attract  them.  Pro- 
bably if  corrosive  sublimate  were  put  in 
the  glue  and  paste  used  it  would  stop 
their  attacks.  Alum  is  said  to  be  a  pre- 
ventive, but  I  have  known  bookworms  to 
eat  their  way  through  leather  pasted  on 
with  paste  containing  alum,  when,  in  re- 
covering, the  old  wooden  boards  containing 
bookworms  have  been  utilised  in  error. 

When  on  shaking  the  boards  of  an  old 
book  dust  flies  out,  or  when  little  heaps 
of  dust  are  found  on  the  shelf  on  which 
an  old  book  has  been  standing,  it  may  be 
considered  likely  that  there  are  bookworms 
present.  It  is  easy  to  kill  any  that  may  be 
hatched,  by  putting  the  book  in  an  air-tight 
box  surrounded  with  cotton  wool  soaked 
in  ether ;  but  that  will  not  kill  the  eggs, 
and  the  treatment  must  be  repeated  from 

298 


time     to     time     at     intervals     of    a     few  Bookworms 
weeks. 

Any  book  that  is  found  to  contain 
bookworms  should  be  isolated  and  at  once 
treated.  Tins  may  be  put  inside  the  boards 
to  prevent  the  "  worms  "  eating  into  the 
leaves. 

Speaking  of  bookworms,  Jules  Cousin 
says  : — 

"  One  of  the  simplest  means  to  be  em- 
ployed (to  get  rid  of  bookworms)  is  to 
place  behind  the  books,  especially  in  the 
place  where  the  insects  show  their  presence 
most,  pieces  of  linen  soaked  with  essence 
of  turpentine,  camphor,  or  an  infusion  of 
tobacco,  and  to  renew  them  when  the  smell 
goes  off.  A  little  fine  pepper  might  also 
be  scattered  on  the  shelf,  the  penetrating 
smell  of  which  would  produce  the  same 
effect." 

Possibly  Keating's  Insect  Powder  would 
answer  as  well  or  better  than  pepper. 

RATS    AND    MICE 

Rats  and  mice  will  gnaw  the  backs  of    Rats  and 
books  to  get  at  the  glue,  so,  means  should 
be   taken   to   get   rid   of  these  vermin  if 
they  should  appear.      Mice  especially  will 

299 


Rats  and    nibble   vellum   binding   or    the   edges   of 
Mice       vellum   books   that   have    become  greasy 
with  much  handling. 


COCKROACHES 


Cockroaches  Cockroaches  are  very  troublesome  in 
libraries,  eating  the  bindings.  Keating's 
Insect  Powder  will  keep  them  away  from 
books,  but  only  so  long  as  it  is  renewed  at 
short  intervals. 


PLACING    THE    BOOKS    IN    THE    SHELVES 

Placing  the       The  Chairman  of  the  Society  of  Arts 
Books  in  the  Special  Committee  says  on  this  point : — 
Shelves          «  jt  js   impOrtant  that  a  just  medium 
should  be  observed  between  the  close  and 
loose  disposition  of  books  in  the  shelves. 
Tight  packing  causes   the  pulling  off  of 
the  tops  of  book-backs,  injurious  friction 
between  their  sides,  and  undue  pressure, 
which  tends  to  force  off  their  backs.     But 
books   should   not   stand   loosely  on  the 
shelves.    They  require  support  and  moder- 
ate lateral  pressure,  otherwise  the  leaves 
are  apt  to  open  and  admit  dust,  damp,  and 
mildew.    The  weight  of  the  leaves  also  in 
300 


good-sized   volumes    loosely  placed   will  Placing  the 
often  be  found  to  be  resting  on  the  shelf,  Bo°ks  'm  the 
making  the   backs  concave,  and  spoiling     Shelves 
the  shape  and  cohesion  of  the  books. 

"In  libraries  where  classification  is  at- 
tempted there  must  be  a  certain  number 
of  partially  filled  shelves.  The  books  in 
these  should  be  kept  in  place  by  some  such 
device  as  that  in  use  in  the  British  Museum, 
namely,  a  simple  flat  angle  piece  of  galvan- 
ised iron,  on  the  lower  flange  of  which  the 
end  books  rest,  keeping  it  down,  the  up- 
right flange  keeping  the  books  close  and 
preventing  them  from  spreading." 

He  also  speaks  of  the  danger  to  bindings 
of  rough  or  badly-painted  bookshelves : — 

"  Great  care  should  be  exercised  when 
bookcases  are  painted  or  varnished  that 
the  surface  should  be  left  hard,  smooth, 
and  dry.  Bindings,  especially  those  of 
delicate  texture,  may  be  irreparably  rubbed 
if  brought  in  contact  with  rough  or 
coarsely-painted  surfaces,  while  the  paint 
itself,  years  after  its  original  application, 
is  liable  to  come  off  upon  the  books,  leav- 
ing indelible  marks.  In  such  cases  paste- 
board guards  against  the  ends  of  the 
shelves  are  the  only  remedy." 

301 


CHAPTER   XXII 

To  Preserve  Old  Bindings — Re-backing 
TO    PRESERVE    OLD    BINDINGS 

To  Preserve  IT  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  leather  of 
Old  Bindings  bindings  that  are  much  handled  lasts  very 
much  better  than  that  on  books  which 
remain  untouched  on  the  shelves.  There 
is  little  doubt  that  the  reason  for  this  is 
that  the  slight  amount  of  grease  the 
leather  receives  from  the  hands  nourishes 
it  and  keeps  it  flexible.  A  coating  of 
glair  or  varnish  is  found  to  some  extent 
to  protect  leather  from  adverse  outside 
influences,  but,  unfortunately,  both  glair 
and  varnish  tend  rather  to  harden  leather 
than  to  keep  it  flexible,  and  they  fail  just 
where  failure  is  most  serious,  .that  is  at 
the  joints.  In  opening  and  shutting,  any 
coat  of  glair  or  varnish  that  has  become 
hard  will  crack,  and  expose  the  leather  of 
the  joint  and  back.  Flexibility  is  an 
essential  quality  in  bookbinding  leather, 
for  as  soon  as  the  leather  at  the  joint  of  a 
binding  becomes  stiff  it  breaks  away  when 
the  boards  are  opened. 
302 


It  would  add  immensely  to  the  life  of  To  Preserve 
old  leather  bindings  if  librarians  would  have  Old  Bindings 
them  treated,  say  once  a  year,  with  some 
preservative.  The  consequent  expense 
would  be  saved  many  times  over  by  the 
reduction  of  the  cost  of  re-binding.  Such 
a  preservative  must  not  stain,  must  not 
evaporate,  must  not  become  hard,  and 
must  not  be  sticky.  Vaseline  has  been 
recommended,  and  answers  fairly  well, 
but  will  evaporate,  although  slowly.  I 
have  found  that  a  solution  of  paraffin  wax 
in  castor  oil  answers  well.  It  is  cheap  and 
very  simple  to  prepare.  To  prepare  it, 
some  castor  oil  is  put  into  an  earthenware 
jar,  and  about  half  its  weight  of  paraffin 
wax  shredded  into  it.  On  warming,  the 
wax  will  melt,  and  the  preparation  is 
ready  for  use. 

A  little  of  the  preparation  is  well 
worked  into  a  piece  of  flannel,  and  the 
books  rubbed  with  it,  special  attention 
being  paid  to  the  back  and  joints.  They 
may  be  further  rubbed  with  the  hand,  and 
finally  gone  over  with  a  clean,  soft  cloth. 
Very  little  of  the  preparation  need  be 
used  on  each  book. 

If  bindings  have  projecting  metal  cor- 
ners or  clasps  that  are  likely  to  scratch  the 

303 


To  Preserve  neighbouring  books,  pieces  of  millboard, 
Old  Bindings  which  may  be  lined  with  leather  or  good 
paper,  should  be  placed  next  them,  or  they 
may  have  a  cover  made  of  a  piece  of  mill- 
board bent  round  as  shown  at  fig.  120,  and 
strengthened  at  the  folds  with  linen.  This 
may  be  slipped  into  the  shelf  with  the 
book  with  the  open 
end  outwards,  and 
will  then  hardly  be 
seen. 

Bindings  which 
have  previously  had 
metal  clasps,  &c., 
often  have  project- 
ing fragments  of  the 
old  nails.  These 
should  be  sought  for 
and  carefully  re- 
moved or  driven  in, 

as  they  may  seriously  damage  any  bindings 
with  which  they  come  in  contact. 

To  protect  valuable  old  bindings,  cases 
may  be  made  and  lettered  on  the  back 
with  the  title  of  the  book. 

Loose  covers  that  necessitate  the  bend- 
ing back  of  the  boards  for  their  removal 
are  not  recommended. 


FIG.    1 20. 


304 


RE-BACKING 

Bindings  that  have  broken  joints  may  Re-backing 
be  re-backed.  Any  of  the  leather  of  the 
back  that  remains  should  be  carefully 
removed  and  preserved.  It  is  impossible 
to  get  some  leathers  off  tight  backs  with- 
out destroying  them,  but  with  care  and 
by  the  use  of  a  thin  folder,  many  backs 
can  be  saved.  The  leather  on  the  boards 
is  cut  a  little  back  from  the  joint  with  a 
slanting  cut,  that  will  leave  a  thin  edge, 
and  is  then  lifted  up  with  a  folder.  New 
leather,  of  the  same  colour  is  pasted  on 
the  back,  and  tucked  in  under  the  old 
leather  on  the  board.  The  leather  from 
the  old  back  should  have  its  edges  pared 
and  any  lumps  of  glue  or  paper  removed 
and  be  pasted  on  to  the  new  leather  and 
bound  tightly  with  tape  to  make  sure  that 
it  sticks. 

When  the  leather  at  the  corners  of  the 
board  needs  repairing,  the  corner  is  glued 
and  tapped  with  a  hammer  to  make  it 
hard  and  square,  and  when  it  is  dry  a 
little  piece  of  new  leather  is  slipped  under 
the  old  and  the  corner  covered. 

When  the  sewing  cords  or  thread  of  a 
20  305 


Re-backing  book  have  perished  it  should  be  rebound, 
but  if  there  are  any  remains  of  the  original 
binding  they  should  be  preserved  and 
utilised.  If  the  old  boards  have  quite 
perished,  new  boards  of  the  same  nature 
and  thickness  should  be  got  out  and  the 
old  cover  pasted  over  them.  Such  places 
as  the  old  leather  will  not  cover,  must 
first  be  covered  with  new  of  the  same 
colour.  Generally  speaking,  it  is  desirable 
that  the  characteristics  of  an  old  book 
should  be  preserved,  and  that  the  new 
work  should  be  as  little  in  evidence  as 
possible.  It  is  far  more  pleasant  to  see 
an  old  book  in  a  patched  contemporary 
binding,  than  smug  and  tidy  in  the  most 
immaculate  modern  cover. 

Part  of  the  interest  of  any  old  book 
is  its  individual  history,  which  can  be 
gathered  from  the  binding,  book-plates, 
marginal  notes,  names  of  former  owners, 
&c.,  and  anything  that  tends  to  obliterate 
these  signs  is  to  be  deplored. 


306 


SPECIFICATIONS 


SPECIFICATIONS 

These  specifications  will  require  modification  in  special 


I. 
For  Extra  Binding  suitable  for 
Valuable  Books.     Whole  Leather. 

II. 
For  Good  Binding  for 
Books  of  Reference,  Cat- 
alogues, &c.,  and  other 
heavy  Books  that  may 
have  a  great  deal  of  use. 
Whole  or  Half  Leather. 

SHEETS. 

To  be  carefully  folded,  or,  if 
an  old  book,  all  damaged  leaves 
to  be  carefully  mended,  the  backs 
where  damaged  to  be  made  sound. 
Single  leaves  to  be  guarded  round 
the  sections  next  them.  All 
plates  to  be  guarded.  Guards  to 
be  sewn  through.  No  pasting  on 
or  overcasting  to  be  allowed. 

As  No.  I.,  excepting 
that  any  mending  may 
be  done  rather  with  a 
view  to  strength  than 
extreme  neatness. 

END  PAPERS. 

To  be  sewn  on.  To  be  of  good 
paper  made  with  zigzag,  with 
board  papers  of  self-coloured  paper 
of  good  quality,  or  vellum.  Or 
to  be  made  with  leather  joint. 

To  be  of  good  paper 
made  with  zigzag,  with 
board  papers  of  self-col- 
oured paper  of  good 
quality.  Large  or  heavy 
books  to  have  a  cloth 
joint.  To  be  sewn  on. 

PRESSING. 

Books  on  handmade  paper  not 
to  be  pressed  unduly. 

Same  as  No.  I. 

EDGES. 

To  be  trimmed  and  gilt  before 
sewing.  To  be  uncut. 

To  be  cut  and  gilt  in 
boards  or  coloured,  or 
to  be  uncut. 

SEWING. 

To  be  with  ligature  silk,  flex- 
ible, round  five  bands  of  best  sew- 
ing cord. 

To  be  with  un- 
bleached thread,  flex- 
ible, round  five  bands 
of  best  sewing  cord. 

BACK. 

To  be  kept  as  flat  as  it  can  be 
without  forcing  it  and  without 
danger  of  its  becoming  concave 
in  use. 

Same  as  for  No.  I. 

308 


FOR  BOOKBINDING. 

cases,  and  are  only  intended  to  be  a  general  guide. 


III. 

For  Binding  for  Libraries,  for  Books  in 
current  use.     Half  Leather. 

IV. 
For  Library  Bindings  of  Books  of  little 
Interest  or  Value,  Cloth  or  Half  Linen. 

Same  as  No.  II. 

Any  leaves  damaged  at  the  back  or 
plates  to  be  overcast  into  sections. 

To  be  of  good  paper,  sewn  on,  made 
with  zigzag. 

Same  as  No.  III. 

Same  as  No.  I. 

To  be  uncut,  or  to  be  cut  in  guillo- 
tine and  gilt  or  coloured,  or  to  have  top 
edge  only  gilt. 

May  be  cut  smooth  in  guillotine. 

To  be  with  unbleached  thread  across 
not  less  than  four  unbleached  linen 
tapes. 

With  unbleached  thread  over  three 
unbleached  linen  tapes. 

Same  as  for  Nos.  I.  and  II. 

Back  to  be  left  square  after  glueing 
up. 

309 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR 


I. 
For  Extra  Binding  suitable  for 
Valuable  Books.     Whole  Leather. 

II. 

For  Good  Binding  for 
Books  of  Reference,  Cat- 
alogues, &c.,  and  other 
heavy  Books  that  may 
have  a  great  deal  of  use. 
Whole  or  Half  Leather. 

BOARDS. 

To  be  of  the  best  black  mill- 
board. Two  boards  to  be  made 
together  for  large  books,  and  all 
five  bands  laced  in  throu  .  two 
holes. 

Same  as  No.  I.,  or 
may  be  of  good  grey 
board. 

HEADBANDS. 

To  be  worked  with  silk  on 
strips  of  vellum  or  catgut  or  cord, 
with  frequent  tie-downs.  The 
headbands  to  be  "  set  *  *  by  pieces 
of  good  paper  or  leather  glued  at 
head  and  tail.  The  back  to  be 
lined  up  with  leather  all  over  if 
the  book  is  large. 

Same  as  No.  I. 

COVERS. 

Goat-skin  (morocco),  pigskin 
or  seal-skin  manufactured  accord- 
ing to  the  recommendations  of 
the  Society  of  Arts'  Committee 
on  Leather  for  Bookbinding. 
Whole  binding  ;  leather  to  be  at- 
tached directly  to  the  back. 

Same  as  No  I.,  ex- 
cepting that  properly 
prepared  sheepskin  may 
be  added.  Half-binding, 
leather  only  at  back. 
Corners  to  be  strength- 
ened with  tips  of  vellum. 
Sides  covered  with  good 
paper  or  linen. 

LETTERING. 

To  be  legible  and  to  identify 
the  volume. 

Same  as  No.  I. 

DECORATION. 

To  be  as  much  or  as  little  as 
the  nature  of  the  book  warrants. 

To  be  omitted,  or 
only  to  consist  of  a  few 
lines  or  dots  or  other 
quite  simple  ornament. 

All  work  to  be  done  in  the  best 
manner. 

Work  may  be  a  little 
rougher,  but  not  care- 
less or  dirty. 

310 


BOOKBINDING—  (continued'). 


III. 

For  Binding  for  Libraries,  for  Books  in 
current  use.    Half  Leather. 

IV. 
For  Library  Bindings  of  Books  of  little 
Interest  or  Value,  Cloth  or  Half  Linen. 

To  be  split  grey  boards,  or  straw- 
board  with  black  board  liner,  with  ends 
of  tapes  attached  to  portion  of  waste 
sheet,  inserted  between  them.  Boards 
to  be  left  a  short  distance  from  the  joint 
to  form  a  French  joint. 

To    be    split    boards,    two    straw- 
boards  made  together  and  ends  of  slips 
inserted.      French  joint  to  be  left. 

To  be  worked  with  thread  or  vellum 
or  cord,  or  to  be  omitted  and  a  piece  of 
cord  inserted  into  the  turn  in  of  the 
leather  at  head  and  tail  in  their  place. 

No  headbands. 

Same  as  Nos.  I.  and  II.,  but  skins 
may  be  used  where  there  are  surface 
flaws  that  do  not  affect  the  strength. 
Leather  to  be  used  thicker  than  is 
usual,  there  being  French  joints. 
Leather  at  back  only  ;  paper  sides  ; 
vellum  tips. 

Whole  buckram  or  half  linen  and 
paper  sides. 

Same  as  Nos.  I.  and  II. 

Same  as  Nos.  I.  II.  and  III. 

To  be  omitted. 

To  be  omitted. 

Same  as  No.  II. 

Same  as  No.  II. 

311 


GLOSSARY 

Arming  press,  a  small  blocking  press  used  for  striking     Glossary 

arms-blocks  on  the  sides  of  books. 
Backing  boards,  wedge-shaped  bevelled  boards  used  in 

backing  (see  Fig.  40). 
Backing  machine,  used  for  backing  cheap  work  in  large 

quantities  ;  it  often  crushes  and  damages  the  backs 

of  the  sections. 
Bands,   ( I )   the   cords    on    which   a   book   is   sewn. 

(2)  The  ridges  on  the  back  caused  by  the  bands 

showing  through  the  leather. 

Band  nippers,  pincers  with  flat  jaws,  used  for  straight- 
ening the  bands  (see  Fig.  61).      For  nipping  up 

the  leather  after  covering,  they  should  be  nick- 

elled  to  prevent  the  iron  staining  the  leather. 
Beating  stone,  the   "stone"   on  which  books  were 

formerly  beaten  ;  now   generally    superseded  by 

the  rolling  machine  and  standing  press. 
Blind  tooling,  the  impression  of  finishing  tools  without 

gold. 
Blocking  press,  a  press  used  for  impressing  blocks  such 

as  those  used  in  decorating  cloth  cases. 
Board  papers,  the  part  of  the  end  papers  pasted  on  to 

the  boards. 
Bodkin,  an  awl  used  for  making  the  holes  in  the  boards 

for  the  slips. 

Bolt,  folded  edge  of  the  sheets  in  an  unopened  book. 
Cancels,   leaves  containing  errors,    which  have  to  be 


Glossary  discarded  and  replaced  by  corrected  sheets.     Such 

leaves  are  marked  by  the  printer  with  a  star. 
Catch-word,  a  word  printed  at  the  foot  of  one  page 

indicating  the  first  word  of  the  page  following,  as 

a  guide  in  collaring. 
Cutting  boards,  wedge-shaped  boards  somewhat  like 

backing  boards,  but  with  the  top  edge  square  ; 

used  in  cutting  the  edge  of  a  book  and  in  edge- 
gilding. 
Cutting  in  boards,  cutting  the  edges  of  a  book  after  the 

boards  are  laced  on. 
Cutting  press,  when  the  lying  press  is  turned,  so  that 

the  side  with  the  runners  is  uppermost,  it  is  called 

a  cutting  press  (see  Fig.  46). 
Diaper,  a  term  applied  to  a  small  repeating  all-over 

pattern.      From  woven  material  decorated  in  this 

way. 
Doublure,   the  inside   face   of  the   boards,   especially 

applied  to  them  when   lined    with    leather    and 

decorated. 
End  papers,  papers  added  at  the  beginning  and  end  of 

a  book  by  the  binder. 

Extra  binding,  a  trade  term  for  the  best  work. 
Finishing,  comprises  lettering,  tooling,  and  polishing,  &c. 
Finishing  press,  a  small  press  used  for  holding  books 

when  they  are  being  tooled  (see  Fig.  84). 
Finishing  stove,  used  for  heating  finishing  tools. 
Folder,  a  flat  piece  of  ivory  or  bone,  like  a  paper 

knife,  used  in  folding  sheets  and  in  various  other 

operations. 
Foredge    (fore  edge),   the  front  edge  of  the   leaves. 

Pronounced  "forrege." 

Forwarding,  comprises  all  the  operations  between  sew- 
ing and  finishing,  excepting  head-banding. 
Gathering,  collecting  one  sheet  from   each  pile  in  a 

printer's  warehouse  to  make  up  a  volume. 

3H 


Glair  e,  white  of  eggs  beaten  up,  and  used  in  finishing     Glossary 
and  edge  gilding. 

Half  binding,  when  the  leather  covers  the  back  and  only 
part  of  the  sides,  a  book  is  said  to  be  half  bound. 

Head  band,  a  fillet  of  silk  or  thread,  worked  at  the 
head  and  tail  of  the  back. 

Head  cap,  the  fold  of  leather  over  the  head  band 
(see  Fig.  67). 

Head  and  tail,  the  top  and  bottom  of  a  book. 

Imperfections,  sheets  rejected  by  the  binder  and  re- 
turned to  the  printer  to  be  replaced. 

India  proofs,  strictly  first  proofs  only  of  an  illustration 
pulled  on  "India  paper,"  but  used  indiscrim- 
inately for  all  illustrations  printed  on  India  paper. 

Inset,  the  portion  of  a  sheet  cut  off  and  inserted  in 
folding  certain  sizes,  such  as  duodecimo,  &c.  (see 

Fig-  4)- 
Inside  margins,  the  border  made   by  the  turn  in  of 

the  leather  on  the  inside  face  of  the  boards  (see 

Fig.   1 1 6). 
Joints,  ( I )  the  groove  formed  in  backing  to  receive 

the  ends  of  the  millboards.      (  2  )  The  part  of  the 

binding  that  bends  when  the  boards  are  opened. 

(3)  Strips  of  leather  or  cloth  used  to  strengthen 

the  end  papers. 
"  Kettle  stitch,'1''  catch  stitch  formed  in  sewing  at  the 

head  and  tail. 
Lacing  in,  lacing  the  slips  through  holes  in  the  boards 

to  attach  them. 
Lying  press,  the  term  applied  to  the  under  side  of  the 

cutting  press  used   for  backing,  usually  ungram- 
matically called  "laying  press." 
Marbling,  colouring  the  edges  and  end  papers  in  various 

patterns,  obtained  by  floating  colours  on  a  gum 

solution. 
Millboard  machine,  machine  used  for  squaring  boards  ; 

315 


Glossary  should  only  be  used  for  cheap  work,  as  an  edge 

cut  by  it  will  not  be  as  square   as  if  cut  by  the 
plough. 

Mitring,  ( I )  lines  meeting  at  a  right  angle  without 
overrunning  are  said  to  be  mitred.  (  2 )  A  join 
at  45°  as  in  the  leather  on  the  inside  of  the 
boards. 

Overcasting,  over-sewing  the  back  edges  of  single 
leaves  or  weak  sections. 

Peel,  a  thin  board  on  a  handle  used  for  hanging  up 
sheets  for  drying. 

Plate,  an  illustration  printed  from  a  plate.  Term  often 
incorrectly  applied  to  illustrations  printed  from 
woodcuts.  Any  full-page  illustration  printed 
on  different  paper  to  the  book  is  usually  called  a 
«« plate." 

Pressing  plates,  plates  of  metal  japanned  or  nickelled, 
used  for  giving  finish  to  the  leather  on  a  book. 

Press  pin,  an  iron  bar  used  for  turning  the  screws  of 
presses. 

Proof,  edges  left  uncut  as  "proof"  that  the  book  has 
not  been  unduly  cut  down. 

Register,  (i. )  when  the  print  on  one  side  of  a  leaf  falls 
exactly  over  that  on  the  other  it  is  said  to  re- 
gister, (ii. )  Ribbon  placed  in  a  book  as  a  marker. 

Rolling  machine,  a  machine  in  which  the  sheets  of  a 
book  are  subject  to  heavy  pressure  by  being  passed 
between  rollers. 

Sawing  in,  when  grooves  are  made  in  the  back  with  a 
saw  to  receive  the  bands. 

Section,  the  folded  sheet. 

Semee  or  Semis,  an  heraldic  term  signifying  sprinkled. 

Set  off,  print  is  said  to  "set  off"  when  part  of  the  ink 
from  a  page  comes  off  on  an  opposite  page.     This 
will  happen  if  a  book  is  pressed  too  soon  after 
printing. 
316 


Sheet,  the  full  size  of  the  paper  as  printed,  forming  a     Glossary 
section  when  folded. 

Signature,  the  letter  or  figure  placed  on  the  first  page 
of  each  sheet. 

Slips,  the  ends  of  the  sewing  cord  or  tape  that  are  at- 
tached to  the  boards. 

Squares,  the  portion  of  the  boards  projecting  beyond 
the  edges  of  the  book. 

Start,  when,  after  cutting,  one  or  more  sections  of  the 
book  come  forward,  making  the  fore  edge  ir- 
regular, they  are  said  to  have  started. 

Straight  edge,  a  flat  ruler. 

Tacky,  sticky. 

T.E.G.,  top-edge  gilt. 

Trimmed.  The  edges  of  a  book  are  said  to  be 
trimmed  when  the  edges  of  the  larger  (or  pro- 
jecting) leaves  only  have  been  cut. 

Tub,  the  stand  which  supports  the  lying  press.  Origi- 
nally an  actual  tub  to  catch  the  shavings. 

Uncut,  a  book  is  said  to  be  uncut  when  the  edges  of 
the  paper  have  not  been  cut  with  the  plough  or 
guillotine. 

Unopened,  the  book  is  said  to  be  unopened  if  the  bolts 
of  the  sheets  have  not  been  cut. 

Waterproof  sheets,  sheets  of  celluloid  such  as  are  used 
by  photographers. 

Whole  binding,  when  the  leather  covers  the  back  and 
sides  of  a  volume. 

Wire  staples  are  used  by  certain  machines  in  the  place 
of  thread  for  securing  the  sections. 

Groove,  that  part  of  the  sections  which  is  turned  over 
in  backing  to  receive  the  board. 


317 


REPRODUCTIONS  OF  BINDINGS 

I.,     II.,     AND    III. 

FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  BLIND-TOOLED  BINDINGS 

IV. 

SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  BINDING  WITH  SIMPLE  GOLD- 
TOOLING 

V.,  VI.,  VII.,  AND  VIII. 
MODERN  BINDINGS  DESIGNED  BY  THE  AUTHOR 


I.— German  Fifteenth  Century.    Pigskin.    Actual  size,  8}"  x  6\". 


II.— German  Fifteenth  Century.    Calf.    Actual  size,  izj"  x  8J". 


III.— Italian  Fifteenth  Century.    Sheepskin,  with  coloured  roundels. 
Actual  size,  ni"  x  8J". 


IV.— Italian  Sixteenth  Century.     Actual  size,  i2.$"x  8J".     Goatskin. 


V.— Half  Niger  morocco,  with  sides  of  English  oak. 
Actual  size,  i7"xnj". 


VI.— Niger  morocco,  inlaid  green  leaves.    Actual  size,  8}" 


VIII. — Niger  morocco,  executed  by  a  student  of  the  Central 
School  of  Arts  and  Crafts.    Actual  size,  ii|"  x  gj". 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Index         ARMING  PRESS,  229,  313 
Arms  blocks,  228 
Art  paper,  48,  282 
Autograph  letters,  179 

BACKING,  117 

Backing  hammer,  123 

Back,  lining  up,  152 

Band  nippers,  160,  163 

Bands,  313 

Bandstick,  1 60 

Beating,  90 

Beating  stone,  90,  313 

Benzine,  207,  209 

Binding,  decoration  of,  21,  30, 

188,233 
Binding,  collotype  reproductions 

of,  321-336 

Binding,  embroidered,  186 
Binding    early    printed    books, 

3i,  46,  "3 
Binding,  extra,  308 
Binding,  jewelled,  263 
Binding,  library,  27,  173,  308 
Binding,  manuscripts,  31,  108, 

113,  125,  135,  223 
Binding,  metal-covered,  263 
Binding,  vellum,  180 
Binding  very  thin  books,  177 
Blind  tooling,  1 88,  222 
Blocking  press,  229,  313 
Blocks,  striking,  229 


338 


Boards,  124 

Boards,  attaching,  132 

Boards,  cutting,  125 

Boards,  tilling  in,  170 

Boards,  lining,  129 

Boards,  pressing,  193,  210 

Boards,  split,  28,  175,  311 

Bodkin,  114 

Bookbinding  as  a  profession,  32 

Books  in  sheets,  34 

Bookworms,  297 

Borders,  designing,  240 

Borders,  inside,  253 

CALF,  27,  277 
Cancelled  sheets,  43 
Cased  books,  19,  49 
Castor  oil,  303 
Catch  stitch,  99 
Catch  words,  314 
Celluloid,  sheets  of,  161 
Centres,  designing,  241 
Chrome  leather,  276 
Clasps  and  ties,  183,  259 
Cleaning  off  back,  137 
Cloth  casing,  19,  49 
Cloth  joints,  86,  257 
Cobden-Sanderson,   T.  J.,  xii., 

22 

Cockroaches,  300 
Cocoanut  oil,  200 
Collating,  43 


Colouring  edges,  144 

Combining  tools  to  form  pat- 
terns, 232 

Compasses,  131 

Cord  sewing,  ill 

Corners,  mitring,  165,  1 68 

Cousin,  Jules,  74,  299 

Covering,  23,  159,  176,  310 

Crushing  the  grain  of  leather, 
192 

Cutting  in  boards,  139 

Cutting  millboards,  124 

Cutting  press,  128 

DAMP,   effect  of,  on   bindings, 

294 
Decoration  of  bindings,  21,  30, 

188,  233 

Designing  tools,  230 
Diaper  patterns,  236 
Dividers,  51 
Dots,  striking,  205 
Doubluves,  253,  314 
Dressing  for  old  bindings,  302 
Dust  and  dusting,  296 

EARLY  printed  books,   binding, 

31,  46,  113 
Edge  colouring,  144 
Edge  gauffering,  144 
Edge  gilding,  95,  144 
Edge  sizing,  95,  146 
Edges,  painted,  146 
Embroidered  bindings,  1 86 
End  papers,  80,  254 
End,  painted,  83 
End,  vellum,  84 
Ends,  silk,  84 
Entering,  33 

Evelyn's  Diary  (quotation),  282 
"Extra"  binding,  308,  314 

FALSE  bands,  26 
Fillet,  190,  206 


Fillet,  small,  206,  246 
Filling  in  boards,  1 70 
Finishing,  191 
Finishing  press,  194 
Finishing  tools,  188 
Finishing  stove,  195 
Flattening  vellum,  65 
Folder,  164 
Folding,  36 
Fraying  out  slips,  114 
French  joint,  1 76 
French  paring  knife,  156 
French  standing  press,  91 

GAS  fumes,  effect  of,  291 

Gathering,  35 

Gauffering  edges,  144 

Gelatine,  70 

Gilding  edges,  95,  144 

Gilt  top,  92 

Glaire,  97,  198 

Glass,  tinted,  for  libraries,  292 

Glossary,  313 

Glue,  289 

Glueing  up,  115 

Goatskin,  277 

Gold  cushion,  200 

Gold  leaf,  199 

Gold  knife,  200 

Gold,  net  for,  96 

Gold,  pad  for,  201 

Gold  tooling,  188,  191 

Gouges,  189,  205,  247 

Groove  (see  Joint) 

Guarding,  42,  53 

Guarding  plates,  50,  56,  316 

HAMMER,  backing,  123 
Hand-made  paper,  280 
Headbanding,  108,  147,  176 
Headcaps,  156,  166 
Heat,    effect    of,    on    bindings, 

295 
Heraldry  on  bindings,  227 

339 


Index 


Index         Hinging  plates,  57 

Hollow  backs,  25,  185 

IMPERFECTIONS,  35 
India  proofs,  soaking  off,  62 
India  proofs,  mounting,  63 
Indiarubber  for  gold,  207 
Inlaying    leather,     213,     232, 

243 

Inlaying  leaves  or  plates,  64 
Inset,  40,  315 
Inside  margins,  253 

JACONET,  60,  64 
Japanese  paper,  282 
Japanese  vellum,  282 
Jewelled  bindings,  263 
Joint,  165,  169 
Joint,  cloth,  86,  257 
Joint,  French,  176 
Joint,  knocking  out,  53 
Joint,  leather,  86,  171 

KETTLE  stitch,  49,  99,  105 
Keys,  sewing,  101 
Knife,  mountcutters',  54 
Knife,  French  paring,  156 
Knife,  gold,  200 
Knife,  plough,  129,  139 
Knocking  down  iron,  53,  134 
Knocking  out  joints,  5  3 
Knot,  100,  1 06 

LACING  in  slips,  132 

Lay  cords,  100 

Laying  press  (see  Lying  press) 

Leather,  27,  263 

Leather,  chrome,  276 

Leather,  crushing  grain  of,  192 

Leather,    inlaying,    213,    232, 

243 

Leather  joints,  86,  171 
Leather,  paring,  154 
Leather,  polishing,  191 

340 


Leather,  sprinkling  and  mar- 
bling, 27,  279 

Leather,  stretching,  23,  161 

Leather,  testing,  274 

Leather  work,  226 

Leaves,  inlaying,  64 

Lettering,  28,  215,  246 

Letters,  autograph,  179 

Library  binding,  27,  173,  308 

Light,  effect  of,  on  leather, 
292 

Lining  up  back,  152 

Lithographic  stone,  157,  160 

Loose  covers,  304 

Lying  press,  128 

MANUSCRIPTS,  binding  of,  31, 

108,  113,  125,  135,  223 
Manuscripts,  collating,  46 
Maps,  throwing  out,  60 
Marbled  paper,  83 
Margins,  inside,  253 
Marking  up,  98 
Materials  for  sewing,  III 
Mending,  76 
Mending  tooling,  208 
Mending  vellum,  79 
Metal  on  bindings,  262 
Millboards,  124 
Millboard  machine,  127,  315 
Millboard  shears,  126 
Mitring  comers,  165,  1 68 
Morocco,  277 
Morocco,  "  Persian,"  271 
Mount-cutters'  knife,  54 
Mounting  India-proofs,  63 
Mounting  very  thin  paper,  63 

NET  for  gilding  edges,  96 
Niger  morocco,  278 
Nipping  press,  211 
Nippers,  band,  160,  163 

OIL,  cocoanut,  200 


Opening     newly-bound    books, 

Press,  finishing,  194 

257 

Press,  lying,  128 

Overcasting,  51 

Press,  nipping,  an 

"  Overs,"  35 

Press  pin,  316 

Oxalic  acid,  use  of,  173 

Press,     sewing      (see      Sewing 

frame) 

PAD  for  gold,  201 

Press,  standing,  88 

Paging,  44 

Pressing  boards,  193,  2IO 

Painted  edges,  146 

Pressing  in  boards,  138 

Painted  end  papers,  83 

Pressing  plates,  192,  316 

Pallets,  189 

Pressing  sections,  87 

Paper,  280 

"Proof,"  316 

Paper,  art,  48,  283 

Publishers'  binding,  20 

Paper,  hand-made,  280 

Pulling  to  pieces,  46 

Paper,  Japanese,  282 

Paper,  marbled,  83 

QUARTER  sections,  42 

Paper,  sizes  of,  36,  283 

Quires,  books  in,  34 

Paper,  sizing,  67 

Paper,  splitting,  63 

RATS  and  mice,  299 

Paper,  washing,  71 

Re-backing,  305 

Paraffin  wax,  303 

Re-binding,  1  8,  306 

Paring  leather,  154 

Re-folding,  51 

Paring  paper,  6  1 

Register  of  printing,  52,  316 

Paring  stone,  157,  1  60 

Representations      of     bindings, 

Pastes,  286 

321-336 

Paste  water,  198 

Roll,  190 

Pasting  down  end  papers,  254 

Rounding,  117 

Patterns,  232 

"Peel,"  316 

SAWING  in,  20,  25,  100,  108 

Permanent  binding,  19 

Scrap  books,  178 

"Persian"  morocco,  271 

Sealskin,  278 

Pigskin,  278 

Sections,  pressing,  87 

Plates,  detaching,  48 

Sewing,   100 

Plates,  guarding,  56 

Sewing  cord,  III 

Plates,  hinging,  57 

Sewing  frame,  loo 

Plates,  inlaying,  64 

Sewing  keys,  101 

Plates,  trimming,  40 

Sewing  on  tapes,  26,  III,  174 

Plough,  128 

Sewing   on  vellum  slips,    III,' 

Plough  knife,  129,  139 

til 

Polishing,  191 

Sewing  silk,  112 

Preserving  old  bindings,  302 

Sewing,  tape  for,  112 

Press,  arming,  229,  313 

Sewing  thread,  112 

Press,  blocking,  229,  313 

Sheepskin,  277-308 

Press,  cutting,  128 

Sheets,  books  in,  34 

341 

Index 


Index         Sheets,  waterproof,  161 

Signatures,  34,  43 

Silk  ends,  84 

Silk  sewing,  112 

Sizes  of  paper,  36,  283 

Sizing,  67 

Sizing  edges,  95-146 

Sizing  leather,  198 

Sizing  paper,  67 

Slips,  317 

Slips,  fraying  out,  1 14 

Slips,  lacing  in,  132 

Soaking  off  India  proofs,  62 

Society  of  Arts,  Report  of 
Committee  on  Leather  for 
Bookbinding,  22,  264 

Society  of  Arts,  Report  of 
Committee  on  Paper,  284 

Specifications,  308 

Split  boards,  28,  175,  311 

Splitting  paper,  63 

Sprinkling  leather,  27,  279 

Squares,  131,  153,  317 

Standing  press,  88 

Standing    press,    French,     89, 

9' 

Staples,  wire,  49 

"  Starred  "  sheets,  43 

Stove,  finishing,  195 

Stone,  lithographic,  157,  160 

Striking  dots,  205 

Striking  tools,  204 

TAPE,    sewing    on,    26,    112, 

»74 

Temporary  binding,  20 
Testing  leather,  274 


Thin  books,  binding,  177 
Thin  paper,  mounting,  63 
Thread,  sewing,  112 
Throwing  out  maps,  60 
Ties  and  clasps,  183,  259 
Tobacco  smoke,  effect  of,  on 

binding,  294 
Tooling,  blind,  188,  222 
Tooling,  gold,  24,  1 8 8,  191 
Tooling  on  vellum,  212 
Tools,  designing,  188,  230 
Tools,  finishing,  188,  230 
Training  for  bookbinding,  32 
Trimming  before  sewing,  93 
Trimming  machine,  94 
Trimming  plates,  40 
Tub,  317 
Tying  up,  167 

VARNISH,  209 
Vellum  binders,  26 
Vellum  bindings,  180 
Vellum  ends,  84 
Vellum,  flattening,  65 
Vellum,  Japanese,  282 
Vellum,  mending,  79 
Vellum  slips,  sewing  on,  ill, 

183 
Vellum  tooling  on,  212 

WALKER,  Emery,  216 
Washing,  71 
Waterproof  sheets,  161 
Weaver's  knot,  1 06 
Wooden  boards,  32,  135,  223, 

330 
Worm  holes,  78,  297 


(3) 


342 


University  of  California 

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405  Hilgard  Avenue,  Los  Angeles,  CA  90024-1388 

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2  3  1993 


REC'D 


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2005 


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A     000039943     6 


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,i 


